# Michael Falser

The Austro-Hungarian Concession in Tientsin/Tianjin in China (1901–1917) Habsburgs going global

#### Michael Falser

*Habsburgs going global* The Austro-Hungarian Concession in Tientsin/Tianjin in China (1901–1917)

#### ÖSTERREICHISCHE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN PHILOSOPHISCH-HISTORISCHE KLASSE DENKSCHRIFTEN, 543. BAND

VERÖFFENTLICHUNGEN ZUR KUNSTGESCHICHTE 22 HERAUSGEGEBEN VON HERBERT KARNER

Michael Falser

# *Habsburgs going global*  The Austro-Hungarian Concession in Tientsin/Tianjin in China (1901–1917)

With a Historical Introduction by Georg Lehner

Accepted by the publication committee of the Division of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Austrian Academy of Sciences:

Michael Alram, Andre Gingrich, Hermann Hunger, Sigrid Jalkotzy-Deger, Renate Pillinger, Franz Rainer, Oliver Jens Schmitt, Danuta Shanzer, Peter Wiesinger, Waldemar Zacharasiewicz

Published with the support of the DDr. Franz-Josef-Mayer-Gunthof Wissenschafts- und Forschungsstiftung.

> Published with the support of the Austrian Science Fund (FWF): PUB 916-Z

Open access: Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Photographic credit for the cover illustrations: )URQW'HWDLOIURPWKHR൶FLDOEDQQHUDQQRXQFLQJWKHQHZ\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ&RQFHVVLRQLQ Tientsin in 1901 (Supplement to an internal Austrian report of 8 August 1902; cf. Fig. 12 in the chapter by Michael Falser) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

Back: Photograph in viewing direction towards the newly completed consulate building in the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin, with a hand-written explanation about the exact positioning ("x") of the projected *Kaiserdenkmal*DWWDFKHGWRWKHOHWWHUIURPWKH7DXVVLJ¿UPWR the consulate, cf. Fig. 27c in the chapter by Michael Falser) [Austrian State Archives]

This publication was subject to international and anonymous peer review. Peer review is an essential part of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Press evaluation process. Before any book can be accepted for publication, it is assessed by international specialists and ultimately must be approved by the Austrian Academy of Sciences Publication Committee.

7KHSDSHUXVHGLQWKLVSXEOLFDWLRQLV',1(1,62FHUWL¿HGDQGPHHWVWKHUHTXLUHPHQWV for permanent archiving of written cultural property.

> Some rights reserved. Copyright © Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 2022 ISBN 978-3-7001-8927-5 Layout: Druckerei Berger, Horn–Wien Print: Prime Rate, Budapest https://epub.oeaw.ac.at/8927-5 https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at Made in Europe

### **Inhaltsverzeichnis**


6 Vorwort


### **Preface — Observations and Work Agenda**

International 'concessions' or 'settlements' were strictly delimited enclaves within key trading cities, ceded to and governed by foreign powers after 'un-HTXDOWUHDWLHV¶DVDFRQVHTXHQFH RIPLOLWDU\ GHIHDWV Concessions also came into being in China, from the PLGQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WRWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHWZHQWL-HWK7KH\DUHFXUUHQWO\EHLQJUHGLVFRYHUHGDVD¿HOG of research about the entangled histories between whole continents as the preconditions of what we today call 'globalisation'.

In this context, the International Settlement of Shanghai (with its beginnings in the 1840s and ending shortly after the Second World War) certainly counts today as the most prominent and best-known example of the concession era in China. From today's perspective, this is not surprising: the French and British TXDUWHUVLQSDUWLFXODUZHUHPDVVLYHFRQVWUXFWLRQVLWHV at that time and their built fabric has survived in a rather good shape until today. Additionally, access to archival material was comparatively easy for a long WLPH \$V D FRQVHTXHQFH ERWK &KLQHVH DQG LQWHUQDtional research into Shanghai's urban and architectural concession history are well developed and have produced some fascinating publications.

The situation of Shanghai's arguably most relevant counterpart, Tianjin — or *Tientsin* as it was pronounced during the concession era itself — is rather GL൵HUHQW\$OWKRXJKWKHFRQFHVVLRQVRIWKHFLW\VLWXated to the south-east of Beijing close to the Bohai Sea, did span the globe — involving nine nations (Japan, the USA, and seven European countries including Russia) — international scholarship is still fragmented and not well interconnected. From a 'Western perspective', only a handful of British, French, Italian or US-American authors have produced monographs about *the(ir)* concessions, most often drawing on archival sources available in the former mother countries' capitals — from London, Paris, and Rome to Washington D.C. On the other hand, Chinese scholars have already produced a considerable range of publications primarily based on material from Tianjin's Municipal Archives or from various archives in the capital Beijing — archives WKDW DUH LQFUHDVLQJO\ GL൶FXOW WR DFFHVV IRU LQWHUQDtional researchers. The British, French, or Italian TXDUWHUVZHUHLQ XVH XQWLO::,,DQG KDYH VXUYLYHG to a considerable extent until today; they can thus be used as built primary (both visual and physical) sources in their own rights. However, their recently LQLWLDWHG H[WUHPHO\WRXULVWLF FRPPRGL¿FDWLRQ UHLQvention (through in-style additions) or even reconstruction by the Tianjin Municipal Government into a cultural heritage site endowed with a supposedly µFRVPRSROLWDQ ÀDLU¶ KDV FUHDWHG DQ DGGLWLRQDO FKDOlenge for research about the 'original' fabric. Last but not least, internal political agendas go hand in hand with powerful super-developers on the spot; IDFWV DQG R൶FLDO VWUDWHJLHV DUH PRVW RIWHQ VKLHOGHG from any broader civil society-oriented discussions, not to mention grassroots initiatives or even resistance from local population groups against enforced relocation from their pulled-down housing.

:LWKLQWKLVFRPSOH[ JOREDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ RI IUDJmented (inter)national historiographies and limited archival access to Tianjin's ambivalent imperialistic past (see the detailed discussion of the state of research in the central chapter of this publication), one particular concession had fallen into deep oblivion: *the Austro-Hungarian concession*. Filling this scien-WL¿F JDS LV WKH RYHUDOO JRDO RI WKLV ERRN 7LHQWVLQ¶V Austro-Hungarian concession existed only for some short sixteen years, between 1901 and 1917, and its urban and architectural history will be contextualised LQJUHDWGHWDLOIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHPDNLQJXVHRIKLWKHUWR unknown published and unpublished material, both written and visual, that has been kept in the Austrian State Archives and the Austrian National Library (both in Vienna). These historical sources provide a solid foundation, to which a visit of the site of the former Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin was added. During a short stay in Tianjin in 2018, I was able to map out the concession's last physical remains and set them in relation to a set of preliminary obser-YDWLRQV DQG RSHQ TXHVWLRQV DERXWWRGD\¶VORFDO KHULtage industry from a contemporary perspective.

#### *Overall structure of this publication*

While the episode of the Austro-Hungarian concession (from 1901 until 1917) and its afterlife, both of them read through the lens of architectural history, stand at the centre of this book, the historical ac-FRXQW LV IUDPHG E\ WZR DGGLWLRQDO VHFWLRQV ¿UVW D Historical Introduction will provide the reader with a XQLTXHRYHUYLHZRIWKH µPDQ\ URDGV¶WDNHQE\\$XVtrian (and, later, Austro-Hungarian) relations with China, from the early nineteenth century onwards, which ultimately led to the concession project shortly after 1900. One may read them as many 'intangible' connections predating the 'tangible' and physical, i.e. urbanistic, infrastructural and architectural, impacts on the city of *Tientsin*/Tianjin. In this complex exploration of numerous historical aspects, it is my great pleasure to have persuaded my present co-author, Georg Lehner, to contribute to this publi-FDWLRQ :H ERWK FRQVLGHU WKDW RXU GL൵HUHQW GLVFLplinary mindsets and their related ways of reasoning — those of a sinologist and historian on the one hand, and of an architectural historian on the other ² XQHTXLYRFDOO\ HQULFKHG WKLV UHVHDUFK SURMHFW ,Q this connection, I would also like to thank Georg Lehner for developing a cross-referential glossary IRU WKH PDQ\ (QJOLVK&KLQHVH\*HUPDQ WHUPV ÀRDWing around our topic. This glossary, which demanded PXFK KDUG ZRUN FRPSOHPHQWV RXU MRLQW H൵RUW WR produce an index of all relevant names of places, persons, institutions, newspapers, etc.; both are provided in the appendix section of this book.

The second framing element of this publication is the central primary source for this present research, a "Photographic Album of the Austro-Hungarian Concession in *Tientsin*", which I was extremely lucky to ORFDWHLQWKH\$XVWULDQ1DWLRQDO/LEUDU\)RUWKH¿UVW time, it is reproduced in full and available to readers with my English translations of the original German legends. Along with other rediscovered maps, sketches, and photographs, I am convinced that this appendix will provide fascinating insights into a concession that, until today, was to a large extent handicapped by an absence of visual evidence.

#### *An Austro-Hungarian concession in China rediscovered, or four global reasons for an unknown story*

To arouse the curiosity of the reader, we shall ask right away about the reasons for this remarkable lacuna in historical knowledge. Why has the Austro-Hungarian part played during the Tientsin concession period been overlooked? I believe that four reasons can be summoned. With reference to the title chosen for this book — *Habsburgs going global* — I would like to argue that these four reasons are themselves entangled within a global logic.

– The missing Vienna-Tientsin connection for 'Habsburgs going global' and local circumstances

\$¿UVWUHDVRQZK\WKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ was forgotten is to be found in the historical constellation shortly after 1900: at that point in time, the Dual Monarchy had already contributed a few hundred marines to the Allies' punitive action against the so-called Boxer Uprising, participated in the sub-VHTXHQW FDSWXUH RI7LHQWVLQLQ -XO\ ZLWKLQWKH Eight-Nation Alliance (see map below), and was a SDUW\WRWKH XQHTXDO µ3HDFH7UHDW\¶ ZLWKORFDO&KLnese authorities shortly after (see this context in Georg Lehner's introduction to this book).

Austria-Hungary was then already part of the Provisional Government of Tientsin that was installed in the summer of 1900 and would, from 1902 RQZDUGV R൶FLDOO\DGPLQLVWHUWKHFLW\%XWLQ VRPH HORTXHQWLQGLYLGXDO\$XVWULDQ SOD\HUVLQ&KLQD managed — as I will explore at the beginning of my chapter — to drive the Habsburg Monarchy, with its relatively unbriefed ministries back home, into a hurried occupation of the last and 'least feasible concession slot' of Tientsin. This was part of a global chain reaction in the ever precipitating competition for imperial outreach and prestige between Paris, London, Rome, Berlin and Vienna. But the Austro-Hungarian settlement itself was an absolute late(st)-comer to the international "scramble for concessions" (to use a famous expression which is attributed to British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury) in the city of Tientsin, whereas more powerful nations, such as Great Britain and France, had already installed their concessions from the 1860s onwards in much more suitable, almost vacant areas along the Hai River to the east of the older, traditional 'Chinese City'. By occupying the last available spot arguably the least practicable one, because it was *de facto* already heavily populated by some 30,000 Chi-QHVH² DQ H൵HFWLYH QHZ GHYHORSPHQW ERWK LQ XUbanistic, infrastructural and architectural terms, was WKHUHIRUHH[WUHPHO\GL൶FXOWIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJ1RW only did 'local' resistance from, and constant negotiation with this population leave little space and energy for construction projects during the short Austro-Hungarian intermezzo. Also at the 'global' other end of the world, in far-away Europe, things were not much easier: political decision-makers in Vienna and Budapest were extremely sceptical and hesitative about all 'colonial' experiments (the Dual Monarchy never had 'real' colonies overseas before or after, nor any real experience in 'world trade' in overseas), and Austrian and Hungarian entrepreneurs in trade, industry, and manufacturing also showed little courage when it came to investing into this project. This 'local-global handicap' meant that — in com-SDULVRQWR PRUH H൶FLHQW EXLOGLQJ SURMHFWV E\ RWKHU concession powers — only a very small amount of XUEDQ VWUXFWXUH DQG DUFKLWHFWXUDO IDEULF ZDV ¿QDOO\ realised, a fact that only contributed to the Austro-Hungarian project's fading into oblivion in the following decades.

In the global dynamics of Tientsin's international concession area, from today's perspective, it is no less important that it be chronicled. I am convinced that exploring the ambivalent role and far less prominent story of Austro-Hungary as a rather *reluctant coloniser* in the 'scramble for China' (or, more precisely, a belated and hesitant actor within the 'international concession game') will help us a) to scruti-QLVH LH FRUUHFW GL൵HUHQWLDWH DQG SHULRGLVH WKH present, all-too-easily adopted, homogenised, and one-dimensional narrative of *one* coherent Tientsin concession framework (in the singular) as an international success story of modernisation and cosmopolitanism — a storyline that is today strongly nurtured by the Tianjin government itself in its urban VHOIEUDQGLQJ H൵RUWV DV D UHERUQ JOREDO PHWURSROLV and it will help b) to conceptualise global implications for Tientsin/Tianjin from the 1860s to 1940s through the lens of *multiple colonialisms* (in the plu-UDO²ZLWKWKHLUGL൵HUHQWWLPHUHJLPHVDQGLQVWLWXtional agencies, and not necessarily always successful architectural or urban impacts.

– Lost in global translation? Repatriated, then divided archival material

These social, political, and economic obstacles notwithstanding, some urban fabric and architectural building stock did take shape during the brief sixteen years of Austro-Hungarian presence in Tianjin — as I will map out thanks to so far unknown archival material. Hence there must be a second reason why virtually no contextual knowledge about the physical reality of the Austro-Hungarian concession exists today. The crucial point here is that, once China had declared war to Austria-Hungary in 1917 and its concession was retroceded (at the latest with the Peace Treaty of St. Germain in 1919 and the sale of the consulate in 1923), many Austro-Hungarian diplomatic sources, from (hand)written correspondence to plans and photographs, were sent back to Austria (when they were not destroyed on the spot). In what I call here a global process of repatriation, many archival sources were partially 'lost in translation': while all the (hand)written correspondence material ended up in the Austrian State Archives in Vienna, crucial visual material (such as plans, maps, and photographs) that was previously attached to it was — and unfortunately still is — separated from it. Hence it is no wonder that comparatively few illustrative sources for the Austro-Hungarian concession RI 7LHQWVLQ ZHUH HYHU V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ LGHQWL¿HG VFL-HQWL¿FDOO\ DQDO\VHG RU SXEOLVKHG E\ HPHUJLQJ UHsearch into the 'Habsburgs going global' episode (from Mexico to China) in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

It was within the framework of the present study that I was able to rediscover — together with other sketches, plans, and photographs sporadically attached to written correspondence — an absolutely XQLTXH SULPDU\ VRXUFHLQWKH µ3LFWXUH\$UFKLYHV DQG Graphics Department' of the Austrian National Library in Vienna: a bound album from *c.*1911 entitled "Österreich-ungarische Niederlassung Tientsin" with EODFNDQGZKLWH SKRWRJUDSKV D ¿IWHHQSDJH typewritten description of a tour through the concession, and a hand-drawn scaled development plan. All this new material is discussed in my chapter and SXEOLVKHGLQIXOOIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQDQDSSHQGL[WR the book. In this way, I tried to reconnect visual information about architectural and urbanistic achievements with written correspondence material about the creation and development of the concession. I KRSHWKDWWKHGDWDSURYLGHGZLOOEHRIJUHDWVFLHQWL¿F EHQH¿W IRU LQWHUQDWLRQDO UHVHDUFKHUV LQ WKH ¿HOG ² above all for Chinese art and architectural historians who often have little knowledge of German and can VFDUFHO\¿QGWKHLUZD\DPRQJVW\$XVWULDQDUFKLYHV

– The global loss of German as a language of science and the hidden 'national historiographical archival logic'

The third reason why the urban and architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession is almost unknown today is that the only comprehensive studies about it were written in the German language a language which is increasingly ignored by current, SULPDULO\ (QJOLVKODQJXDJH LQWHUQDWLRQDO VFLHQWL¿F research. These studies, part of PhD theses at the University of Vienna (Wagner 1955, Hörtler 1984, DQG /HKQHU , ZLOO GLVFXVV DQG TXRWH WKHVH studies in my chapter), were unfortunately not published and therefore 'out of digital sight' for international research through many online research en-JLQHV7KXVWKHSUHVHQWERRNLVWKH¿UVW(QJOLVKODQguage publication to unlock the curious history of the Austro-Hungarian concession to a broader, English-speaking audience. For this task, a wide selection of original German-language published primary sources (internal reports, newspaper clippings, travel reports, etc.) were translated and therefore made DYDLODEOH WR (QJOLVKVSHDNLQJ UHDGHUV IRU WKH ¿UVW time. In this way, we hope to provide the (Austro-Hungarian) missing link in the chain and gradually complete the entangled history of all nine former Tientsin concession powers and their Chinese counterpart.

However, from a wider perspective, it could be argued that it is precisely the 'inter-national' framework of multiple colonialisms around historical Tientsin (nine imperialist nations plus China) that continues to function as a hidden, 'national historiographical archival logic' behind the still rather patchworky character of the state of research. In fact, cur-UHQWUHVHDUFKFOXVWHUVDQG¿QGLQJVFDQEHDVFULEHGWR WKHVDPHµLQWHUQDWLRQDO¶FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ)UHQFK%ULWish/American, Italian, Japanese and Chinese researchers not only most often elect to write the history of 'their' previous national concessions or 'in-GLJHQRXV TXDUWHUV¶ WKHLU NQRZOHGJH KDV DOVR EHHQ structured by this logic given that they primarily consult the archives and libraries in 'their' mother countries before complementing this more sizeable amount of research with visits to other archives (for the Austrian context, see below). It must be admitted that the present publication, to a large extent, has HTXDOO\IROORZHGWKLVORJLFZKHQDQDO\VLQJKLVWRULFDO documents kept in various sections of the Austrian State Archives: in my chapter I will not only provide a critical evaluation of the state of research concerning already published material (secondary sources), but will also present a short overview of the structure of the relevant Austrian archives.

Last but not least, very often the various national historiographies of historical Tientsin have been published in their respective language. Certainly, here as elsewhere, English provides the usual translingual bridge for a conjoint, transnational research ¿HOG WKLV XQGHQLDEOH IDFW PRWLYDWHG XV WR SUHVHQW RXU UHVHDUFK ¿QGLQJV DERXW WKH \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ concession not in our mother tongue (German) but in this global *lingua franca*.

– The loss of original 'colonial' fabric during the reinvention of Tianjin as a 'global city'

Finally, a fourth reason is worth noting when we ask why the built legacy of Austria-Hungary in China has remained almost unnoticed until today. Certainly, very little urban fabric was actually completed during the Austro-Hungarian concession era itself; and what little had been built may have been lost owing to political or natural reasons during the post-war era, including ideologically motivated neglect or even demolition during the Maoist period, DQ HDUWKTXDNHLQ DQG QDWXUDO GHFD\ IROORZHG by the burgeoning urban boom in the post-1990s. 7KHUHIRUHWKHDSSURDFKWDNHQLQWKH¿QDOVHFWLRQRI the book is from a retrospective viewpoint: not only was little actually built during the concession period, but this limited *original* fabric seems to have been lost over the following decades. Paradoxically, what I will call a 'history-cum-heritage turn' since the HDUO\ V PD\ EH LGHQWL¿HG DV WKH ODUJHVW WKUHDW While the present Chinese city of Tianjin is branded as a 'global city' through a systematic reinvention of its past as the Tientsin of concessions (which *de facto* was violent and imperialist) in the name of an international or, even, cosmopolitan legacy, the remaining authentic architecture of the Austro-Hun-JDULDQFRQFHVVLRQVHHPVWREHPRGL¿HGEH\RQGUHFognition. Following the observations made during P\¿UVW¿HOGWULSWR7LDQMLQLQ'HFHPEHU,EHlieve that the current heritagisation process even accelerates — rather than mitigates — this dramatic ORVV:KHQ ZDONLQJ IURP RYHUFRPPRGL¿HG µ/LWWOH England' and 'Little France' towards 'Little Italy', I did notice that 'Little Austria' was also undergoing IXOO FRPPRGL¿FDWLRQ <HW RQO\ OLPLWHG KHULWDJH UHsearch has been invested into the latter to map out concretely what has been preserved, replaced, reconstructed, or simply reinvented, since the historical EDFNJURXQG DQG DERYHTXRWHG YLVXDO SULPDU\ sources had been missing until now as important referential and comparative data. In this sense, it must be noted that what I describe in this book as an process guided by a *history to heritage logic* is rather PHDQWWR UDLVHD¿UVW VHW RI RSHQ UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV ZLWKRXWWKHSUHWHQFHWRFRPHWRD¿QDOFRQFOXVLRQRU judgement. What will particularly be needed in the QHDU IXWXUHLV D FROODERUDWLYH UHVHDUFK H൵RUWWKDW DW last would bring together international experts and Chinese scholars — who enjoy better access to, and know their way around local archives, and could SUHVHQWWKHLUDOWHUQDWLYHFRQFOXVLRQVDERXWWKLV¿HOG of imperialist history in China.

#### *To conclude: a personal note*

My own personal 'discovery' of the Austro-Hungarian concession was in itself a happy incident. With my professional background as a Vienna-trained architect, art historian, and cultural heritage specialist, I had the privilege to direct a research project in the ¿HOG RIFRORQLDODUFKLWHFWXUH XUEDQLVPDQGDUFKDH-RORJ\ZLWKLQD\*HUPDQ5HVHDUFK)RXQGDWLRQIXQGHG &OXVWHURI([FHOOHQFHµ\$VLDDQG(XURSHLQD\*OREDO &RQWH[W7KH '\QDPLFV RI7UDQVFXOWXUDOLW\¶ DW +HL-GHOEHUJ8QLYHUVLW\\*HUPDQ\IRUPDQ\\HDUV7KLV DOVRJDYHPHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRWUDYHOH[WHQVLYHO\LQ 6RXWK6RXWK(DVWDQG(DVW\$VLDLQRUGHUWRH[SORUH KRZLPSHULDO QDWLRQV VXFK DV )UDQFH )DOVHU  \*UHDW%ULWDLQWKH1HWKHUODQGVDQG\*HUPDQ\SK\VL-FDOO\HQJDJHGZLWKWKHLU RYHUVHDVWHUULWRULHV ,QWKLV FRQWH[W,ZDVLQYLWHGWRDQLQWHUQDWLRQDOFRQIHUHQFH RQKHULWDJHVWXGLHVLQ6KDQJKDLLQDIWHUWKHDF-DGHPLFHYHQWLWVHOIWKLVJDYHPHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WR H[SORUH PRUH RI WKH FLW\¶V KLVWRULFDO FRQFHVVLRQ DU-HDVZKLFKDUHQRZSURPRWHGWKURXJKPDQLIROGQRV-WDOJLF KHULWDJHZDONVLQWRWKH VXSSRVHGO\ µJRRG ROG WLPHV¶

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Given our parallel European debates about reconstructed city castles (as in Berlin) or over-commodi- ¿HG FXOWXUDO KHULWDJH VLWHV RIWKH +DEVEXUJ HUD , DP convinced that this contemporary hybrid or side-byside conglomerate remembered as 'the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin' and now promoted as an *Austrian Style Riverfront*LQ7LDQMLQLVLQLWVHOIDXQLTXH document of our present super-globalisation — one WKDWLVGH¿QLWHO\ZRUWKVWXG\LQJLQDOOLWVIDFHWV

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my dear colleague, the Viennese historian-sinologist Georg Lehner. He has not only contributed to this book, on the basis of his long-standing expertise, by providing a "Historical Introduction" to the — intangible — Austrian-Chinese relations from 1820 until 1900, which altogether opened up 'many roads' to the tangible — impact of the Habsburg Empire within the Tientsin concession. He has also been a competent help for my own investigations into the architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession.

Many thanks go to the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) DQG WKH 0D\HU\*XQWKRI6WLIWXQJ IRU WKHLU ¿QDQFLDO support. Additionally, I would like to thank Thomas Just and Gerhard Gonsa from the Austrian State Archives (Vienna), and Hans Petschar and Peter Prokop from the Austrian National Library (Vienna) for their help. In the production context of the present publication, I would like to thank Katrin Keller and Herbert Karner from the Institute of Habsburg and Balkan Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (Vienna) for their support, as well as Robert 3ULQJHU IURP WKH \$FDGHP\¶V VFLHQWL¿F SXEOLVKLQJ house and Roxanne Powell for her patient English copy-editing of our texts. Last but not least, I would like to thank the two academics who conducted the blind peer review for their valuable suggestions along the way.

## **Historical Introduction. The many roads to Tianjin. Learned curiosity, political disinterest, and imperialist opportunities: Austria(-Hungary) and China**

\*ൾඈඋ/ൾඁඇൾඋ

A lecture tour through the Habsburg Monarchy in the winter of 1910–11 brought the Austro-Hungarian concession1 in Tianjin ཙ⍕<sup>2</sup> into the consciousness RI D ZLGHU SXEOLF IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH 7KHVH OHFWXUHV were given by Fritz Ehrenfeld, the (former) police chief of the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin. Ehrenfeld, the Czernowitz/Chernivtsi-born son of a journalist, brought around one hundred photographs to each of these lectures:

The remarks of Mr Ehrenfeld are accompanied by 100 large, very excellent photographs. This presentation of rich illustrative material makes the statements of the speaker, who incidentally has a welltrained speaking voice, particularly impressive. The impression that the listener receives from this intimate and close union of images and words is far clearer and richer than that which, for example, could be gained from reading a more extensive book on Chinese conditions.3

(KUHQIHOG ZKR ¿UVW OLYHG LQ %HLMLQJ IRU VL[ \HDUV and then in Tianjin for four years, divided his lecture LQWRWZRSDUWV,QWKH¿UVWSDUWKHGHDOWZLWK%HLMLQJ in the second part he focused on the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin.4 The net proceeds of Ehrenfeld's lectures went to the Austro-Hungarian Aid Association for Northern China [*Oesterreichisch-un-* *garischer Hilfsverein für Nord-China*], which had been founded on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of Emperor Francis Joseph's accession to the throne (1908).5 After Ehrenfeld had given his lecture several times in Vienna at the public educational institute *Urania* DQG DW WKH 6FLHQWL¿F &OXE >*Wissenschaftlicher Klub*], his tour took him to Graz, Marburg/Maribor, Salzburg, Trieste (March 1911), Klagenfurt and Steyr (April 1911).6 The newspapers DOVR EULHÀ\ UHSRUWHG RQ ZKDW FRXOG EH VHHQ LQ WKH photographs shown by Ehrenfeld:

The photographs accompanying the lecture were clear and clean, you could see cities, pagodas, Euro peans and locals, even a Chinese woman cycling, and one Chinese whose love for the colony went so far that he put on our tasteful waiter's FORWKHVDQG²DFTXLUHG+XQJDULDQFLWL]HQVKLS<sup>7</sup>

The lively newspaper coverage of Ehrenfeld's lectures contrasted sharply with widespread lack of interest in China in general, and in the area occupied by Austria-Hungary in Tianjin (February 1901) for the establishment of a concession in particular. This ODFN RI LQWHUHVW ZDV DOVR UHÀHFWHG LQ WKH IDFW WKDW HYHQDGHFDGHDIWHUWKH³DFTXLVLWLRQ´RIWKHFRQFHVsion there were hardly any publications about it on the Austro-Hungarian side:

 <sup>1</sup> While the term 'concession' was/is used in English (cf. Giles 1912, 1463 (No. 11827): "』⭼ a term used for the 'Concessions' at various Treaty ports, under which land is leased in perpetuity to foreign nations"), the terms 'Konzession', 'Niederlassung' and µ6HWWOHPHQW¶ZHUHJHQHUDOO\XVHGV\QRQ\PRXVO\LQ\*HUPDQODQJXDJHWH[WVRIWKHHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\/L±R൵HUVD comprehensive overview of the development of treaty ports and concessions in China. For the return of the foreign concessions to Chinese administration (1917–1946) see ibid., 84 and the map in Wu 2010 [1999], 95. 2 In this introduction, Chinese terms will be transcribed according to the Pinyin system. Earlier/other renderings for Tianjin include

<sup>7</sup>LHQWVLQPRVWO\XVHGLQQLQHWHHQWKDQGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\VRXUFHV7¶LHQWVLQ:DGH\*LOHVV\VWHP7\DQMLQ<DOHV\VWHP7LlQ djin (Lessing-Othmer), and Tiëntsin. 3 .lUQWQHU7DJEODWW0DUFK

 <sup>4</sup> Villacher Zeitung, 11 April 1911, 4.

 <sup>5</sup> 'HU0RUJHQ)HEUXDU\1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH)HEUXDU\\$,QTXRWLQJIURP\$XVWULDQQHZVSDSHUVWKHOHWWHUVDW-WDFKHGWRWKHGDWHRISXEOLFDWLRQUHIHUWRGL൵HUHQWHGLWLRQVRIQHZVSDSHUVRIWKHVDPHGD\0IRUWKHPRUQLQJHGLWLRQ\$IRUWKH afternoon edition and (E) for the evening edition. 6 2Q(KUHQIHOG¶VOHFWXUHLQ7ULHVWH0DUFKFIWKHQRWHLQ/¶2VVHUYDWRUH7ULHVWLQR0DUFKTXRWHGLQ/HH

 <sup>7</sup> Grazer Tagblatt, 8 March 1911, 5.

It is a striking — and let us frankly admit it shameful fact that even the commercially and geographically interested circles of our monarchy are barely informed of the existence of our concession [*Settlement*@LQ&KLQD >«@ ,WLVVLJQL¿FDQWWKDWQR publication has been devoted to the concession [*Niederlassung*] [...] since its establishment apart from a small article in *Das Handels museum*, 1907, No. 2. Even our consular reports from Tientsin did not deliver any information about the settlement until 1911.8

6LQFHWKLV VWDWH RI D൵DLUV GLG QRW FKDQJHLQWKH SHriod leading up to China's declaration of war on \$XVWULD+XQJDU\ \$XJXVW  DQGWKH VXEVHTXHQW return of the concession to the Chinese authorities, the reasons for this disinterest need to be investigated more closely.

To this end, this introduction will present some of the most striking features of the relations between Austria(-Hungary) and China: the early commercial voyages to East Asia and the beginnings of Chinese VWXGLHVLQ\$XVWULDWKH ¿UVW VWHSVWDNHQ E\WKH\$XVtrian government to establish consular and diplomatic representations, including the *Novara* Expedi-WLRQ WKH VLJQLQJ RI WKH ¿UVW WUHDW\ ZLWK &KLQD LQ 1869; and the participation of China in the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873. Furthermore, it will shed some light on the entry of some Austrians and Hungarians into the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs and the experiences of Austro-Hungarian travellers and explorers in China, as well as the presence of Roman Catholic missionaries. Finally, this introduction will summarise the somewhat reluctant steps taken by Austria-Hungary to join the 'scramble for China' after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, and the motives behind Austro-Hungarian participation in the international intervention in northern China in the summer of 1900 and its occupation of a piece of land for an Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin.

These many roads to Tianjin are arranged according to the following three phases of nineteenth-cen-WXU\\$XVWUR&KLQHVH UHODWLRQVWKH ¿UVW SDUW ³7UDGH and curiosity") includes early commercial voyages and Austro-Hungarian travellers to China, the beginnings of Chinese studies in Austria, and the presentation/participation of China in the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873. The second part ("Austria-Hungary as a treaty power") presents the beginnings and development of the consular and diplomatic service of Austria(-Hungary) in China, the experiences made by Austrians and Hungarians in the service of the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs, examples of the roles played by Austrian merchants and experts, and the experiences made by Austro-Hungarian missionaries. The third part includes Austria-Hungary's attitude to the 'scramble for China', culminating in its participation in the international intervention of 1900 and the occupation of a territory in Tianjin. The fourth and last part of this introduction deals with the early history of the Austro-Hungarian concession up to the takeover of the administration by the Austro-Hungarian government.

#### **1. Trade and curiosity**

#### **1.1. Commercial voyages before and after the 'opening up of China' (1820s to 1840s)**

Shortly after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Austrian authorities received a plan for a commercial expedition whose purpose was to export mercury from the Idria mines to China. This plan was proposed by Edward Watts, who had experience with Asian trade and from 1807 was invested as the Austrian Consul General for the East Indies and China, and was searching for a way to circumvent the East India Company's monopoly in the China trade. For this purpose, the Austrian authorities provided him with a man-of-war, the *Carolina*. Watts should remunerate the expenses. Preparations for the voyage to China were completed by the summer of 1820 (**Fig. 1**). Starting from Trieste in September 1820 and sailing via Madeira, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, Batavia and Singapore, the *Carolina* ¿QDOO\ reached Guangzhou (Canton) in August 1821. During this journey, the spread of cholera after the *Carolina* left Batavia in June 1821 marked a dramatic culmination on board, causing the death of DERXWDTXDUWHURIWKHFUHZ,Q\*XDQJ]KRXWKH\$XVtrian commissioner accompanying this expedition soon found out that the deal proposed by Watts could not be concluded in the intended way. The Austrians managed to sell the mercury at a great loss and to buy some return cargo. Shortly after the return to Austria in the summer of 1822, Watts left the Aus-

<sup>8</sup> 1HPHþHN6HHDOVR1HPHþHN2QWKHDUWLFOHSXEOLVKHGLQ'DV+DQGHOVPXVHXPVHHWKHPDLQSDUWRIWKLV book.

**Fig. 1** "China" on a map of 1827. Before the so-called opening up of China, Shanghai к⎧ had not been put on the map. As regards northern China, the map provides no entries for the region between Beijing ेӜ ("Pekin") and the Gulf of Zhili ⴤ䳨 ("G. of Petche lee"). In the Zhili province ("Petchelee", i.e. Bei Zhili ेⴤ䳨), two cities ("Teintin"? and "Tien"?) have been placed on the map to the south-west and the south-east of "Paoting" (i.e. Baoding ؍ᇊ), respectively. [Finley 1827]

trian service without paying for the expenses incurred by the expedition.9

Two decades later, after the so-called opening up of China had been initiated by the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanjing (August 1842), Austrian merchants took an interest in exploring the opportunities of the China trade. The most remarkable initiatives were the 'East India Mission' (1843–45) commissioned by the Trieste Stock Exchange and the voyage of the merchant ship *Airone* (1844–46).

The East India Mission was carried out by two merchants, Peter Erichsen and Alexander Conighi. It travelled via Suez, Bombay, and Singapore to China. ,Q&KLQD(ULFKVHQDQG&RQLJKLYLVLWHGDOO¿YHSRUWV (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai) 'opened up' to foreign trade by the Treaty of Nanjing. The main task of the two men was to explore market opportunities for Austrian companies in India, South East Asia, and China.10 A review of WKHLU UHSRUW SXEOLVKHGLQWKH R൶FLDO*Wiener Zeitung* praised Erichsen for telling "the plain truth" [*die ungeschminkte Wahrheit*].11 Erichsen later became the director [*Betriebsdirektor*] of the *Donaudampf-VFKLৼDKUWVJHVHOOVFKDIW* [lit. First Danube Steamboat Shipping Company] and never returned to Asia. Conighi later was appointed as the "Provisional Consul at Singapore for H.M. the Emperor of Austria".12

 <sup>9</sup> Lehner 1995, 43–60, Lehner 1998.

 <sup>10</sup> Lehner 1995, 66–76. For the published report of the Mission, see Erichsen 1846.

 <sup>11</sup> Wiener Zeitung, 19 February 1847, 408.

 <sup>12</sup> The Gentleman's Magazine, February 1864, 241.

While Erichsen and Conighi travelled to the East on foreign ships, the Austrian brig *Airone* set sail for an epic journey that led her to North-Western Europe, South East Asia, China, and the United States. Having left Trieste in September 1844, in London the *Airone* loaded some cargo for China in January 1845 and reached Huangpu near Guangzhou (Canton) in July 1845. Having successfully escaped an attack by Chinese pirates and carrying back a load of tea, the *Airone*DUULYHGLQ1HZ<RUNDIWHUDMRXUQH\ of 139 days via Cape Town and St. Helena.13 After travelling for approximately 39,900 nautical miles (i.e. about 73,900 kilometres) and without having ORVWDVLQJOHPDQWKHEULJ¿QDOO\UHWXUQHGWR7ULHVWH on 30 May 1846.14

#### **1.2. The beginnings of Chinese studies in Austria**

In the late 1820s, the newly appointed director of the Imperial Library in Vienna, Moriz Count Dietrichstein (1775–1864), took a vivid interest in expanding

**Fig. 2** Section of a map of 1840: "Das südöstliche Asien oder China, Japan und Hinter-Indien mit dem Indischen Archipelagus" [Southeastern Asia, or, China, Japan and India beyond the Ganges including the Indian Archipelago] (Weimar: Geographisches Institut, 1840). Detail showing the eastern part of China from the Great Wall in WKHQRUWKWRWKH/RZHU<DQJ]L region. In the metropolitan province of "Petschyli" [i.e. Zhili ⴤ䳨@WKHFRQÀXHQFHRI the Grand Canal ("Jün-ho") with the Baihe ⲭ⋣ ("Pehan-ku") in Tianjin ཙ⍕ ("Thian-thsiu [sic]) can be seen clearly. To the south, the name of "Schang-Hai-Hien" is indicated. [The Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA]

 <sup>13</sup> ³'LH|VWHUUHLFKLVFKH%ULJJ\$LURQHLQ1HZ<RUN´LQ-RXUQDOGHVgVWHUUHLFKLVFKHQ/OR\G0DUFK

 <sup>14</sup> Oesterreichischer Beobachter, 19 June 1846, 668.

the collection by procuring books from all over the world. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Chinese books had been presented to the Habsburg Court by Jesuit missionaries.15 In 1828, the library SXUFKDVHGDVHWRILOOXVWUDWLRQVR൵HUHGIRUVDOHE\WKH above-mentioned Edward Watts. These illustrations showed "costumes, court ladies, warriors, workmen, music teachers, ships, plants, birds, insects, sea creatures and also methods of torture and of execution."16 In the early 1830s, Dietrichstein managed to purchase Chinese books from French collectors through the mediation of the Paris-based German Orientalist Heinrich Julius von Klaproth (1783– 1835). The cataloguing of the considerably augmented collection was done by Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher (1804–1849), a botanist and librarian by profession, who developed a keen interest in the Chinese language.17 As a result of this interest, Endlicher spared no expense to print the catalogue of the collection — including Chinese characters. For this purpose, he even directed the preparation of Chinese printing types.18 Following the publication of the catalogue (1837), he began editing an atlas of China (QGOLFKHUDQGFRPSOHWHGWKH¿UVWJUDPPDURI Chinese published in German (1845).19

In the early 1840s (**Fig. 2**), the newly appointed GLUHFWRU RI WKH ,PSHULDO DQG 5R\DO 3ULQWLQJ 2൶FH [*k.k. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei*] in Vienna, Alois Auer (1813–1869, later ennobled as Auer von Welsbach) not only developed a modernisation programme for printing presses and printing types. Relying on a group of linguists (mostly Orientalists), he directed the casting of types for a wealth of non-Latin scripts. For Chinese types, he relied on the SKLORORJLFDO H[SHUWLVH RI \$XJXVW 3¿]PDLHU ±  \$IWHU FRPSOHWLQJ KLV PHGLFDO VWXGLHV 3¿] maier had delved into the study of Oriental languages (ranging from Turkish to Chinese and Japanese) and soon was able to translate Oriental texts. Before becoming a member of the Imperial Acad-HP\RI6FLHQFHVLQ9LHQQD3¿]PDLHUKHOSHG producing Chinese printing types at the Imperial and 5R\DO 3ULQWLQJ 2൶FH 7KHVH SULQWLQJ W\SHV ZHUH later mainly used to supply the Chinese characters IRU 3¿]PDLHU¶V RZQ ZRUNV SXEOLVKHG E\WKH ,PSHrial Academy of Sciences.20

#### **1.3. The making of 'China': China's participation in the Vienna Universal Exhibition, 1873**

The Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs, established in 1854, were responsible for organising the participation of China at the Vienna Universal Exhibition in 1873.21 As Robert Bickers put it, "China was being represented through foreign nationals in state employ, certainly, but here nonetheless was an integration of China — of Chinese things and Chinese opportunity — into the global encyclopaedia, on display in Europe […]."22

China's participation in the Vienna Universal Exhibition was initiated in summer 1872 by Heinrich von Calice, the Austro-Hungarian diplomatic representative to East Asia. Because it had been one of the aims of the exhibition "to show the international exchange of products" and to exhibit "samples and specimens of the articles of trade and commerce of all the important harbours and sea-ports", Calice asked Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector General of the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs, "for assistance in arrangements to prevent China from remaining unrepresented at the Universal Exhibition". Hart in-VWUXFWHGKLVVWD൵WRSUHSDUHFROOHFWLRQV³WRFRQVLVWRI samples from merchandise" to be found in the fourteen Chinese ports that were already open to foreign trade.23

The preparations for Chinese participation were FRRUGLQDWHG E\ PHPEHUV RI WKH IRUHLJQ VWD൵ RI WKH Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs, who also came to Vienna as "Chinese commissioners".24

From the beginning, China's participation in the exhibition was overshadowed by that of Japan. It

 <sup>15</sup> For the history of the Sinica collection of the Imperial Library (today's Austrian National Library) in Vienna, see Lehner 2013a. 16 Lack 2001, 392. See also Grübl-Steinbauer 2000 and Huber-Frischeis, Knieling & Valenta 2015, 304–306.

 <sup>17</sup> See Lehner 2013a. For Chinese books in other parts of the Habsburg Empire, see Lehner 2013b.

 <sup>18</sup> For the history of printing Chinese characters in Austria, see Lehner 2004, 151–189.

 <sup>19</sup> On these publications, see Führer 2001, 47 f. (catalogue of 1837), 49 f. (atlas), and 50–53 (grammar).

<sup>20</sup> 2Q 3¿]PDLHU¶V FRQWULEXWLRQWR &KLQHVH VWXGLHV VHH )KUHU ± RQ 3¿]PDLHU¶V UROHLQWKH SURGXFWLRQ RIWKH &KLQHVH types, see Lehner 2004, 167–172. 21 On the representation of China at the universal exhibitions of 1851 and 1855, see Girard 2014; on the representation of China at

the Paris universal exhibition of 1867, see Martin 2019, 131–134. 22 Bickers 2011, 204.

<sup>23</sup> &KLQD7UDGH6WDWLVWLFVRIWKH7UHDW\3RUWVVT

 <sup>24</sup> Wr. Weltausstellungs-Zeitung / Int. Ausstellungs-Zeitung, 11 May 1873, supplement.

**Fig. 3** Map of the 1873 Vienna Universal Exhibition Ground. Detail showing the *Rotunde* (the central building on the exhibition ground) and the 'Chinese court' to the east of the pavilions of Austria and Hungary. Detail from the *Weltausstellungs-Album* (1873), end of volume. [Private archive, Michael Falser]

**Fig. 4** "Vienna Universal Exhibition, 1873. Chinese Exhibition." A glimpse into the exhibits collected by Gustav Overbeck, I. & R. Honorary Consul-General in Hong Kong. [Wien Museum]

**Fig. 5** Vienna Universal Exhibition, 1873. Cercle Oriental of Dr. Hardt [*Cercle Oriental des Dr. Hardt*]. The Chinese teahouse can be seen in the foreground of the picture. [Technisches Museum Wien (Vienna Museum of Science and Technology)]

was only several weeks after the inauguration of the Vienna Universal Exhibition that the Chinese part of WKH H[KLELWLRQZDV FRPSOHWHG DQG ¿QDOO\ RSHQHGWR the public. The 'Chinese court' was the last court on the north side (*Nördlicher Hof*) of the industry palace (**Fig. 3**).

Apart from the collections assembled by the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs, some collections were prepared by Gustav von Overbeck (**Fig. 4**), a merchant and Austro-Hungarian consul general in Hong Kong (who also used his stay at the World Exhibition in Vienna to present plans for the establishment of a trading base in North Borneo to Austrian government agencies25DQGE\WKHVWD൵RIWKH\$XVtro-Hungarian consulate in Shanghai, which contained samples of products from all over China provided by Roman Catholic missionaries. The visitors were made aware

[...] that the Chinese exhibition is extremely important from the standpoint of commercial and transportation shipping interests The exhibition EULQJVHYHU\WKLQJWKDW&KLQDFDQR൵HUIRUH[SRUWWR Europe in an exemplary selection; it also includes a complete collection of all natural products of China, a large part of which is still unknown in Eu-URSH HYHQ WR WKH PHQ RI VFLHQFH DQG ¿QDOO\ KDV REMHFWVLQWKH¿HOGRIKDQGLFUDIWSURGXFWLRQWKDWLQ WHUPVRIEHDXW\IRUPDQGH൶FLHQF\RIWHFKQRORJ\ are not inferior to the other exemplary achievements of the Orient. [...]26

\$FFRUGLQJWRWKHR൶FLDOFDWDORJXHWKHWKUHHSDUWVRI the "Chinese exhibition" comprised the following thematic groups: mining and metallurgy; agriculture and forestry; the chemical industry; food and luxury goods; the textile and clothing industry; the leather and rubber industry; the metal industry; stone, clay and glassware; the haberdashery sector; the paper industry; mechanical engineering and means of trans-

 <sup>25</sup> Pape 1959, 191 f.

 <sup>26 &</sup>quot;China in der Weltausstellung", in: Wr. Weltausstellungs-Zeitung / Int. Ausstellungs-Zeitung, 15 June 1873, 5.

SRUW VFLHQWL¿F LQVWUXPHQWV PXVLFDO LQVWUXPHQWV army; shipping; a bourgeois house with furnishings; a farmhouse with furnishings; religious art; and the applied arts.27

The *Weltaussstellungs-Album* [Album of the Universal Exhibition] contained an illustration and a description of the so-called Chinese teahouse (**Fig. 5**):

>«@ D FR൵HH JDUGHQ LQ ZKLFK WKHUH ZDV DOVR D strangely shaped tea pavilion tapering downwards and covered by a curved roof — actually the PRGHO RI D &KLQHVH ¿VKHUPDQ¶V KRXVH EXW KHUH called a Chinese teahouse — always found a crowd of admirers who stood amid these oriental VSOHQGRXUVDWWLPHVVSHFL¿FDOO\GHYRWHGWR:HVWHUQ pleasures — beer.28

To mark the end of the exhibition, the Chinese commissioners planned to host a festive dinner (for a VXP RI À WRGD\ DSSUR[LPDWHO\ ¼ After some deliberation, they changed their plans and sponsored a 'Chinese concert' to show their appreciation for Vienna and the exhibition. In the run-up to the event, the *Neue Freie Presse* mentioned the great impression made by Japan's participation in the exhibition and drew some comparisons:

And if the gala concert turns out to be brilliant, as is not to be expected otherwise, the procedure of the venerable representatives of the Celestial Empire may be boldly compared with the famous feasts of Cleopatra when she dissolved precious pearls in wine, or the world-famous luxury of that \$XJVEXUJSDWULFLDQZKROLWDURRP¿UHZLWKSURPissory notes for the imperial guest. After the exhibition is over, we will talk much more about the concert luxury of our Chinese guests than at the time of the exhibition itself, in which, as is well known, the active Japanese nation was known as the lap child of both Viennese and foreigners.29

The Chinese concert took place in the Golden Hall of the Vienna *Musikverein* on 4 November 1873, starting at 10 p.m. The programme of the Vienna Philharmonic included works by Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Mozart, Schubert, Beethoven, Schumann, Lanner, and Johann Strauß father and son.30

2QH RI WKH PRUH ODVWLQJ FRQVHTXHQFHV RI WKH Vienna Universal Exhibition was the establishment of the *Orientalisches Museum* [Oriental Museum]. Its main purpose should be "to promote trade relations between Austria-Hungary and the countries of the Orient and East Asia".31 The institution was renamed *k. k. Handelsmuseum* [Imperial and Royal Trade Museum] in 1885.32

#### **1.4. Austr(o-Hungar)ian travellers: curiosity, VFLHQWL¿FH[SORUDWLRQDQGODQJXDJHVWXGLHV**

On his extensive travels through Asia, Australia, and WKH3DFL¿F2FHDQ±.DUO)UHLKHUUYRQ+ gel (1795–1870)33 who, thanks to his inherited wealth could live an independent life, also went to &KLQDYLVLWLQJ\*XDQJ]KRXLQWKH¿UVWGD\VRI<sup>34</sup>

My next visit was to China, the pedantic, hard-working people who clung to the past, an Asian Germany whose ancient institutions England will overthrow with its advancing system, just as France's ideas did with ours; not within two decades, but unstoppable all the same.35

While in Manila, Hügel learned of the death of the British superintendent in China, Lord Napier, to whom all the letters of recommendation he had for Guangzhou were addressed. Hügel was now confronted with the problem that he did not know anyone in Guangzhou.36<HWKLVVKRUWVWD\LQ\*XDQJ]KRX sparked his interest in the Chinese language. In 1903 his son Anatole von Hügel remembered:

 <sup>27</sup> General-Catalog 1873, 757–65.

 <sup>28</sup> Weltausstellungs-Album, 7.

 <sup>29</sup> Neue Freie Presse, 31 October 1873 (M), 5.

 <sup>30</sup> See: Vienna Philharmonic, concert database: https://www.wienerphilharmoniker.at/en/konzerte/concert-chinese-worlds-fair-com

mission/6559/ (accessed 26 February 2021). 31 Mittheilungen der kaiserlichen und königlichen Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien 18 (1875), 21. For the preparatory consultations prior to the establishment of the Museum, in: Wiener Zeitung, 5 July 1874, 66; and Neue Freie Presse, 24 October 1874 (M),

<sup>6.</sup> For the Chinese exhibits on display in the museum, in: Wiener Abendpost, 8 May 1875, 5. 32 On the history and development of this institution up to 1919, in: Das Handelsmuseum 1919.

 <sup>33</sup> On Hügel, see Feichtinger & Heiss 2020.

 <sup>34</sup> Oesterreichischer Beobachter, 8 November 1836, 1522.

 <sup>35</sup> 2HVWHUUHLFKLVFKHU%HREDFKWHU'HFHPEHU³&KLQDJDOWPHLQQlFKVWHU%HVXFKGHPSHGDQWLVFKHQDUEHLWVDPHQDQDOlem Frühern festhaltenden Volke, dem asiatischen Teutschland, dessen uralte Einrichtungen England mit seinem fortschreitendem [*sic*] System umstürzen wird, wie Frankreichs Ideen es mit den unseren getan haben; nicht in zwei Jahrzehnten, allein dennoch unaufhaltsam." This article had been reprinted from the Berlin Haude & Spenersche Zeitung. 36 Hügel 1860, 155.

I well remember in Brussels — in 1866 or 1867 seeing him at his table writing in Chinese characters. He told me that since his visit to Canton in 1835, in leisure moments he had continued to practise what he had then learned of Chinese from a Mandarin, with whom he had ever since kept up a friendly correspondence.37

In his four-volume work, *Kaschmir und das Reich der Siek* [*Kashmir and the Realm of the Sikhs*], Karl Freiherr von Hügel reported on an episode of his visit to Guangzhou, which reveals his interest in Asian arts and crafts. In the section "Religion and superstition" [*Religion und Aberglaube*] he remembered his encounter with a Chinese stonemason and presented an example of the use of Pidgin English in Sino-Western encounters:

A strange idea arose in me in Canton about the origins of the lingam and yoni. At a stonemason from whom I wanted to buy the statue of one of the main Chinese idols, I found, to my surprise, a few dozen lingams standing on the yoni. I asked who they were for; he said: 'For no one, he makes a few hundred randomly every year'. I asked further: 'Do you call this lingam?' 'No,' was the reply of the Chinese in his English, 'Hab nam Handmill,' it is called a hand mill; I did not want to believe this, but he brought me the part that did not stand on it, and I saw that the lower part of a hand mill common in India perfectly resembled the lingam and yoni.38

,Q WKH \HDUV ± ,GD 3IHL൵HU ± made one of the most remarkable journeys of that time. After raising her two sons as a single mother, she pursued "a natural wish for travel" and began H[WHQVLYH WUDYHOV 2Q KHU ¿UVW MRXUQH\ DURXQG WKH world, she arrived in southern China in the summer RIQRWTXLWH¿YH\HDUVDIWHUWKH\$QJOR&KLQHVH treaty of Nanjing (1842). Although this treaty in-FOXGHGWKHRSHQLQJXSRI¿YHSRUWVWRIRUHLJQWUDGH VKH IRXQG LW UDWKHU GL൶FXOW WR WUDYHO WR \*XDQJ]KRX ZKHUHVKHVWD\HGIRU¿YHZHHNVDQGWKHVXUURXQG-LQJ DUHD 6KH UHSHDWHGO\ PHQWLRQHG WKH GL൶FXOWLHV encountered by women travelling alone, especially in China (cf. Howe 1999, Hildebrandt 2005):

[…] I learned what risks I, as a woman, had run in traversing the streets of Canton with no escort but a Chinese guide. Such a thing had never occurred before and […] I might esteem myself as exceedingly fortunate in not having been insulted by the people in the grossest manner, or even stoned.39

In the summer of 1847, there repeatedly circulated rumours in Guangzhou "of the near approach of a revolution, in which all the Europeans were to perish."402QO\DERXWWZR\HDUVDIWHU3IHL൵HU¶VYLVLWWKH British forced free access to the city of Guangzhou.

Another interesting but far less documented journey took place in the 1860s. The travel destination was the Jewish community in Kaifeng 䮻ሱ: "The only [European] Jew who travelled to Kai-fung-fu was a merchant from Vienna, J. L. Liebermann, who went there in 1867 without bringing home anything noteworthy from his trip."41

The brothers József (1841–1924) and Ágost Count Zichy (1852–1925) undertook a much better documented journey through Asia.42 Having originally planned a world tour, they had to revise their WUDYHO SODQV DIWHU D VHYHUH VWRUPLQWKH<HOORZ 6HD The journey to East Asia took them via Constantinople, Suez, Aden, Ceylon, and Singapore to the Dutch East Indies, where they spent several weeks in January and February 1876. After visiting Siam in February and March they continued their journey to Hong Kong, which they reached on 29 March 1876. The ¿UVWSDUWRIWKHLUMRXUQH\LQ&KLQDWRRNWKHPWR0Dcau, Guangzhou, Shantou ⊅九 (Swatow), Zhoushan 㡏ኡ, and Shanghai, among other places. After a sixweek journey through Japan (12 May–26 June) they continued their travels in China. In northern China WKH\YLVLWHG<DQWDL=KLIX7LDQMLQDQG%HLMLQJ,QKLV travel notes on Tianjin, József Count Zichy, a former Hungarian Minister of Commerce, referred to the most faithful description of the so-called 'Tianjin Massacre' (21 June 1870), given by Joseph Alexander Count Hübner.43 After a few days in Beijing, the

 <sup>37</sup> Hügel 1903, 72, n. 3.

 <sup>38</sup> Hügel 1840, 368.

<sup>39</sup> 3IHL൵HU

<sup>40</sup> 3IHL൵HU2QWKH[HQRSKRELFPRRGRIWKH&DQWRQHVHVHHDOVRWKHIROORZLQJUHPDUNLELG³6L[\RXQJPHQPDGH this same excursion [as she did] six months later, stopping at one of the villages and mixing with the people. Unhappily, they all fell victims to the fanaticism of the Chinese; they were most barbarously murdered." 41 "Über eine versprengte jüdische Kolonie", in: (Neuigkeits) Welt Blatt, 12 December 1890, 7. Liebermann's travel to Kaifeng is

DOVREULHÀ\PHQWLRQHGLQ5HLFKVSRVW\$XJXVW

 <sup>42</sup> See Slobodník 2013.

 <sup>43</sup> Zichy 2006 (remark on Hübner's book, ibid., 166).

brothers continued their journey via Xuanhua ᇓॆ and Zhangjiakou ᕥᇦਓ. They crossed the Gobi Desert and travelled through Mongolia. In mid-August 1876 they passed the Sino-Russian border at Khiakhta and then continued their journey home through Siberia and European Russia.

Soon after their return to Hungary, Ágost Count Zichy gave a lecture to the Hungarian Geographical Society on their journey from Beijing to Urga through the Mongolian desert.44 In 1880, he published a paper on his travel memories from China.45

The most remarkable Austro-Hungarian expedition including extensive travelling within China took place in the years 1877 to 1880. From 1874, after the GHDWKRIKLV¿UVWZLIH%pOD&RXQW6]pFKHQ\L± KDGGHYHORSHGSODQVIRUDVFLHQWL¿FH[SHGLWLRQ to Asia. The main task of this expedition would be to conduct research on the geography and geology of the mountain ranges in the Chinese-Tibetan borderlands. After reaching Hong Kong on 1 April 1878, WKH H[SHGLWLRQ WHDP YLVLWHG \*XDQJ]KRX &DQWRQ travelled to Shanghai, made an excursion to Japan, YLVLWHG <DQWDL &KHIRR=KLIX 7LDQMLQ DQG %HLMLQJ 2FWREHU  EHIRUH UHWXUQLQJWR 6KDQJKDL IURP ZKHUHWKH\VHWRXWIRUWKHLUVFLHQWL¿FZRUNRQ'H-FHPEHU 7KH\ ZHQW XS WKH <DQJW]H 5LYHU WR Hankou. From Hankou they crossed the Qinling range 〖Ꮺኡ -DQXDU\  DQG FRQWLQXHG YLD /DQ]KRX㱝ᐎ DQG 6X]KRX㚵ᐎ to Anxi ᆹ㾯, before reaching Dunhuang ᮖ❼, the westernmost SRLQWRIWKHLUWUDYHOVDFURVV&KLQD0D\\$IWHU UHWXUQLQJ WR /DQ]KRX WKH\ RQFH DJDLQ FURVVHG WKH Qinling range and continued via Chengdu and Dajianlu to Batang ᐤຈ,Q%DWDQJWKH\¿QDOO\KDGWR give up their plan to enter Tibet owing to the re-SHDWHGWKUHDWV RIWKH7LEHWDQ DXWKRULWLHV 'HFHPEHU 1879). They continued their journey via Zhongdian ѝ⭨, Dali བྷ⨶ and Tengyue 偠䎺0RPHLQEHIRUH leaving the Chinese territory for Burma.46 For the ¿UVW WLPH (XURSHDQV KDG WDNHQ WKH URXWH IURP Batang to Zhongdian.47 With the permission of &RXQW 6]pFKHQ\L \*XVWDY .UHLWQHU ± D geographer who took part in the expedition, pub-OLVKHGDWUDYHORJXHLQ WKH VFLHQWL¿F UHVXOWV RI WKHMRXUQH\ZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQWKUHHYROXPHVSOXVDQ atlas) in the 1890s — the Hungarian edition in ± DQG WKH \*HUPDQ HGLWLRQ LQ ± 6]pFKHQ\L±

2Q KLV MRXUQH\ DURXQG WKH ZRUOG 'HFHPEHU ±2FWREHU  \$UFKGXNH )UDQ] )HUGLQDQG RQO\VWD\HGEULHÀ\LQVRXWKHUQ&KLQDZKHUHKHYLV-LWHG0DFDX+RQJ.RQJDQG\*XDQJ]KRX'XULQJKLV VWD\LQ \*XDQJ]KRX &DQWRQ KH ZDV D JXHVW DWWKH KRXVHRI&XVWRPV&RPPLVVLRQHU(GZDUG%'UHZ

1RW RQO\ GRHV0U 'UHZ VSHDN DOLWWOH )UHQFK KH also has a small treasure trove of German words at his disposal [*verfügt auch über einen kleinen Schatz deutscher Worte*] — an achievement that may be credited to his long stay in Vienna, where Mr Drew acted as Chinese Commissioner on the RFFDVLRQRIWKHH[KLELWLRQLQDQGIHOWVRFRPfortable that he still speaks of that time with satisfaction.48

,Q ± 'U )UDQ] .KQHUW ± astrono mer by profession and sinologist by vocation, ZDV WKH ¿UVW SHUVRQ VHQW WR &KLQD E\ WKH \$XVWULDQ JRYHUQPHQWWRLPSURYHKLVODQJXDJHVNLOOV.KQHUW ZHQWWR1DQMLQJZKHUHKHVWXGLHGWKHODQJXDJHZLWK WKH ³ERQ]HV RI D%XGGKLVWWHPSOH´ DQG ZDVWUDLQHG E\ RQH RI WKH &KLQHVH OLWHUDWL 2Q YDULRXV H[FXU-VLRQV .KQHUW YLVLWHG SXEOLF EXLOGLQJV DQGWHPSOHV to improve his knowledge of Chinese culture. From 1DQMLQJ .KQHUWWUDYHOOHGWR =KHQMLDQJ䧞⊏ DOVR LQWKH<DQJ]L YDOOH\WKH+XEHL SURYLQFH DQG%HLjing. In Beijing, he was taught by the Chinese teacher at the German legation. Visits to the surroundings of Beijing, for instance to the Great Wall DQG WKH0LQJ WRPEV URXQGHG R൵ KLV SURJUDPPH<sup>49</sup> +DYLQJ UHWXUQHGWR\$XVWULD+XQJDU\.KQHUW RFFXpied himself with preparing several publications on the Chinese language and continued to teach Chinese at the University of Vienna. From 1897 onwards, he also taught courses on the Chinese lan-JXDJH DWWKH 2ULHQWDO\$FDGHP\ >*Orientalische Akademie*] in Vienna renamed Consular Academy [*Konsularakademie*] in 1898.50

In the second half of the 1890s, two Hungarian researchers travelled to China. While Jenö Cholnoky

 <sup>44</sup> Zichy 1877.

 <sup>45</sup> Zichy 1880.

<sup>46</sup> 7KH GHVFULSWLRQ RI WKH URXWH LV EDVHG RQ WKH PDS LQ .UHLWQHU 6HH ELRJUDSKLFDO HQWULHV LQ +HQ]H DQG LQ gVWHUUHLFKLVFKHV%LRJUDSKLVFKHV/H[LNRQI

<sup>47</sup> 6HH.UHLWQHU

<sup>48</sup> \$UFKGXNH)UDQ])HUGLQDQGYRQgVWHUUHLFK(VWH,,

 <sup>49</sup> ³(LQ|VWHUUHLFKLVFKHU6LQRORJH´LQ1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH-XQH(

<sup>50</sup> 6HH/HKQHUE2Q.KQHUWDQGKLVVLQRORJLFDOZRUNVHH)KUHU±

(1870–1950) was interested in the country's geology, -HQĘ&RXQW=LFK\ZDVHDJHUWRFROOHFW QHZ VRXUFHV concerning the origin of the Hungarians. In January &KROQRN\UHDFKHG6KDQJKDL,QWKH¿UVWZHHNV KHYLVLWHGWKH<DQJ]LGHOWDDQGWKHQPRYHGRQWRWKH Hangzhou region.51 Afterwards, he travelled to Beijing to apply for funding for research on the +XDQJKH <HOORZ 5LYHU :KLOH ZDLWLQJ IRU WKH author ities to reply, Cholnoky travelled to the northern parts of the Zhili ⴤ䳨 province: "[…] drove from Khalgan [Kalgan, i.e. Zhangjiakou ᕥᇦਓ] to the highlands on the route often used by tourists and left it at Dolon-nor or Lama-miao [Lama miao ஷో ᔏ], taking [his] way back through the gate at Kupei-kou [Gubeikou ਔेਓ]."52 After the Chinese authorities refused to support his research, he made a ERDWWULSXSWKH<DQJW]HWR:XKX㮚⒆ and went to Vladivostok, from where he travelled across Manchuria before reaching Beijing in December 1897. After travelling from Beijing to Hankou, Cholnoky returned to Shanghai. He had spent 237 days on the move (about 25.4 km per day), which he almost always covered on foot. On his travels, he made 750 drawings and took 250 photographs.53 Some of these photographs — showing views of Beijing and of a street in the Chinese suburbs of Tianjin — were used to illustrate Cholnoky's article on Beijing and its environs, published in *Vasárnapi újság* on 1 July 1900.54

7KH ³UHDFTXLVLWLRQ RI WKH GRFXPHQWV WDNHQ E\ Batu Khan from Hungary in 1242" had been the main objective of the expedition undertaken by Jenö Count Zichy (1837–1906) in 1898. Zichy arrived in Beijing a few days after the *coup d'état* of September 1898 during which the Empress Dowager Cixi deposed the Guangxu ݹ㐂 Emperor from power. After three meetings with members of the =RQJOL <DPHQ 㑭⨶㺉䮰, the latter told him that they would search their archives for related documents; if they found anything related to Hungary, they would transmit these materials to him by way of the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing.55 After Zichy's return to Hungary, Freiherr von Czikann, Austro-Hungarian minister to Beijing, informed him



that the Chinese authorities had started searching for the documents in their archives. Zichy telegraphed Czikann that if the search brought these documents to light, he would undertake the journey to Beijing once again.56 This, however, would never come to pass.

#### **2. Austria-Hungary as a treaty power**

#### **2.1. Early consular and diplomatic representation in China**

The origin and development of Austrian/Austro-Hungarian consular and diplomatic representation in China have been described so far almost ex-FOXVLYHO\RQWKHEDVLVRIR൶FLDOFRUUHVSRQGHQFHEHtween the Austrian government and the early representatives appointed to consular and diplomatic posts in China.

Having appointed German merchants as consular representatives in southern China and Hong Kong, Austria developed plans to strengthen her commercial relations with East Asia. Moreover, Austria tried to secure a leading role in the German-speaking world. To serve both these purposes, the circumnavigation by the frigate *Novara* also included a visit to Hong Kong and a short visit to Guangzhou (summer 1858).57 By signing a treaty with China (1861), Prussia outdid Austria in terms of its consular and diplomatic representation in China. Owing to the Austro-Prussian War (1866), a planned Austrian expedi-WLRQ ZDV WKHQ GHOD\HG IRU VHYHUDO \HDUV 7KH ¿UVW treaty between China and Austria-Hungary could only be signed in September 1869.58 While Dong Xun 㪓ᙲ (1810–1892), one of the two Chinese plenipotentiaries, signed the treaty in Beijing (2 September 1869), Chonghou ጷ, the second Chinese plenipotentiary, signed the treaty in Tianjin (8 September 1869).

,Q KLV R൶FLDO UHSRUW RIWKH H[SHGLWLRQ .DUO YRQ Scherzer included a brief description of the geographical location and economic importance of Tianjin:

 <sup>51</sup> Cholnoky 1899, 8.

 <sup>52</sup> Cholnoky 1899, 9.

 <sup>53</sup> Cholnoky 1899, 13.

 <sup>56</sup> Pester Lloyd, 2 April 1899, 5.

**Figs. 6a,b** "Tien-tsin", detail of the British Admiralty Chart 1863 – Pei-Ho or Peking River, sheets 2&3. [Wikipedia Commons]

Tientsin [Tianjin], the most important of the northern ports in China, was opened up to foreign trade in 1860. The city is in the north of Tschili [Zhili] SURYLQFH RQ WKH RXWÀRZ RI WKH \*UDQG &DQDO LQWR the Peiho [Baihe ⲭ⋣, i.e. 'White River'], 28 miles from the mouth of the latter river and 60 miles from Peking. Tientsin, which has the provinces of Tschili [Zhili], Shansi [Shanxi] and Shensi [Shaanxi] as sales areas, surpasses all other Chinese ports regarding the import of cotton goods and also shows a considerable importation in the other articles of foreign origin.59

Thus, Austria-Hungary was one of those countries that had signed an unequal treaty with China (see **Fig. 6a,b** for the British involvement in the Treaty of 1858). In addition to this participation in asymmetrical relations between 'the West' and China, another asymmetry must be considered. Although the Monarchy at that time still saw itself as a major European power, unlike other European powers, it had no political interest in East Asia and hardly any economic ties with China.

After his retirement from diplomatic service, Joseph Alexander von Hübner (1811–1892; Austrian ambassador to Paris 1849–59 and, in this capacity, involved in the negotiations to end the Crimean War; then Austrian ambassador to Rome 1865–68) undertook (and later published) *A Ramble Round the World* (Hübner 1871/1874). For about two months, from 3 October to 6 December 1871, he visited various places in China. From 31 October to 7 November, he stayed in Tianjin:

The town, properly so called, forms a square. Its ZDOOV DUH FUHQHODWHG DQG ÀDQNHG E\ WRZHUV DWWKH four angles. It is in the suburbs that the trade and commerce of the town are centred. The town and suburbs are situated on the southern bank of the Peiho and of the great canal, which here joins that river.60

,QKLV\*HUPDQWUDYHOUHSRUW*Ein Spaziergang um die Welt* of 1882 he added several illustrations about his stay in "Tien-Tsin" (**Figs. 7a,b**). Apart from the walled city, Hübner also visited foreign concessions:

As to the English and French concessions, they will EHTXLFNO\GHVFULEHG,QWKH¿UVW\RX¿QGDVLQDOO the Chinese and Japanese factories, the *bund* — that LV D TXD\ OLQHG ZLWK VRPH ¿QH DQG ZHOOEXLOW houses. Here — and that alone proves how much everyone in this place must consider his personal safety — all the habitations are surrounded by a strong wall. Everyone has a watchman. Furnished with a rattle, he makes every night the rounds of the house, and does not cease, by the noisy sound of his instrument, to warn thieves of this presence, and to disturb the peaceable sleep of the inhabitants. […] The French concession is as yet without houses. The small number of residents lived until lately in the Chinese town. The mission in the native city having QRZEHHQGH¿QLWLYHO\DEDQGRQHGWKH\DUHEXLOGLQJ a church on French ground.61

In his travelogue, Hübner explained the motivations that had led Austria to join the other powers in concluding a treaty with China:

In signing, in concert with all the other great powers, a treaty with China, the Austrian government has assured for herself a place in Asia for any future eventualities. She has established a Consulate in the most important port of the Celestial Empire [i.e. Shanghai]; and in order to enable her consul to SURFHHGZLWKDQH[FKDQJHRIWKHUDWL¿FDWLRQVRIWKH treaty, she has conferred upon him a diplomatic character.62

When summarising his impressions of international relations in East Asia in 1871, Alexander von Hübner clearly advised against any active engagement of Austria-Hungary in that region:

Complications on questions foreign to the monarchy may arise on these distant shores. To refuse all concurrence with her allies, as long as she is represented there, would be impossible; to co-operate on a great scale for the defence of interests which are not her own, would appear, from the point of view of a healthy policy, absolutely inadmissible. To limit herself, as Spain does, for instance, to KRLVWLQJ KHU ÀDJLQWKH VXLWH RIWKH\$QJOR)UHQFK ÀHHWZRXOGEHXQZRUWK\RIKHUSRVLWLRQDVRQHRI WKH¿UVWSRZHUVLQ(XURSH63

 <sup>59</sup> Scherzer 1872, 291. For details on the signing of the treaty, see ibid. XI (introduction). On the history of nineteenth-century Tian-MLQVHH%HUQVWHLQ2QWKHFRUUHFWQDPHRIWKH:KLWH5LYHU%DLKHVHH0|OOHQGRU൵VT:RQJDQGWKH HQWU\LQ=KRQJJXRJXMLQGLPLQJGDFLGLDQ³>«@ IURPWKHFRQÀXHQFHRIWKH%DLKHDQGWKH\*UDQG&DQDOWKH ULYHULVFDOOHG Haihe ⎧⋣ […]." See also Couling 1917, 221: "Hai ho ⎧⋣, the name by which the Pai-ho is known at Tientsin, below the ter-PLQXVRIWKH\*UDQG&DQDO´

 <sup>60</sup> Hübner 1874, I:300.

 <sup>61</sup> Hübner 1874, I:298 sq.

 <sup>62</sup> Hübner 1874, I:456.

 <sup>63</sup> Hübner 1874, I:457.

**Fig. 7a,b** ³7LHQWVLQWKH3HL+RDQGLWVFRQÀXHQFH´ZLWKWKH\*UDQG&DQDODERYHDQGDUDUHYLHZLQWRD³5RRPRUVDORQRID Chinese house" (below) in Hübner's *Ein Spaziergang um die Welt* [A Ramble Round the World] of 1882 [Hübner 1882, unnumbered plates]

Hübner's advice to abandon Austrian diplomatic rep-UHVHQWDWLRQ LQ &KLQD DIWHU WKH UDWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH treaty went unheard.64 Until 1883, Shanghai remained the seat of an Imperial and Royal Resident Minister at the Eastern Asiatic courts. In 1883, the seat of the diplomatic representation of Austria-Hungary in East Asia was moved to Tokyo to stress the importance that Japan had acquired in international relations in East Asia. Shanghai remained the seat of a consulate general.65 Joseph Haas, who began his career as a student interpreter, served in China for many years. In July 1896, Haas drowned in a swimming accident; his body was never found.66 In his memory, a monument was erected in the cemetery of the French concession in Shanghai. Its unveiling took place on 15 November 1898. It consisted of a marble column crowned by an ashes urn. In spring 1900, two bronze wreaths donated by Haas' widow and the Imperial & Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, respectively, were added.67

#### **2.2. Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs**

Thanks to the Austro-Chinese treaty, Austrian and Hungarian citizens were eligible to join the multinational Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs. In July 1873, at the time of the Vienna Universal Exhibition, applications by two candidates to join the Customs were invited by the Habsburg monarchy authorities.68 Two young men, the Austrian Ludwig von Fries (1852–1904) and the Hungarian Edmund Faragó (1853–1925) left Trieste for China in September 1873. After their arrival in Shanghai, they went to Beijing to begin their Chinese language training.69

Fries (Chinese name Fei Lisi 䋫⨶ਨ) obtained the rank of Second Assistant B in April 1881.70 Fries' brother Sigmund (1855–1893; mentioned as 'Sigismund' in the Service Lists of the Inspectorate Gen-HUDO )HL ;LPHQJ 䋫㘂ᆏ) joined the service in Novem ber 1876.71

Faragó passed the compulsory Chinese-language examination in March 1875. As was customary for personnel of the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs, Faragó moved to various custom houses throughout the Chinese Empire.72 In the summer of 1878, while based in Tianjin at the time of the Great Famine, which had hit northern China, he and his Customs colleague Hosea Ballou Morse were cho-VHQ ³WR KHOS GLVWULEXWH IDPLQH UHOLHI IXQGV SDUWLFX-ODUO\VLQFHWKHUHOLHIH൵RUWKDGUHFHQWO\EHHQVWLJPD-WL]HG E\ FKDUJHV RI FRUUXSWLRQ´73 In March 1881, Faragó was promoted to the rank of commissioner.74 After having spent nine years in China, Faragó returned to Austria-Hungary in 1882 for a short visit. 2Q WKLV RFFDVLRQ WKH *(Neuigkeits) Welt Blatt* (Vi-HQQD SXEOLVKHG WKH IROORZLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ ³+LV QDPH )DUDJR UHDGV LQ &KLQHVH )D/DL.R >)DODLJH ⌅ֶṬ@DQGEHDUVWKHPHDQLQJµE\OHJDOPHDQVRQH PXVWDWWDLQDKLJKUDQN¶>*Auf gesetzlichem Wege muß man einen hohen Rang erreichen*@´<sup>75</sup> From time to time, Faragó returned to Hungary — on one of these occasions he was received in audience by Emperor Francis Joseph.76

7KH)ULHVEURWKHUVSXEOLVKHGDQ³2YHUYLHZRIWKH FXOWXUHRIWHDDQGWKHWUDGHZLWKWHDLQ&KLQD´ DQG ² ZLWK WKH KHOS RI KLV &KLQHVH WHDFKHU ;X Shensi ᗀᙍ²6LJPXQGSXEOLVKHGDQ³2XWOLQHRI WKHKLVWRU\RI&KLQDVLQFHLWVRULJLQV´ZLWKWUDQVODWHG and edited sources (1884).77


73 Fairbank, Coolidge & Smith 1995, 44.

74 6WDWLVWLFDO'HSDUWPHQWRIWKH,QVSHFWRUDWH\*HQHUDO6HUYLFH/LVWWKHG

<sup>64</sup> )RUWKH UDWL¿FDWLRQ RIWKH WUHDW\WKDWWRRN SODFHLQ1RYHPEHU LQ6KDQJKDLLQ:LHQHU=HLWXQJ 6HSWHPEHU 1080. 65 Lehner 1995, 178–180.

 <sup>66</sup> :LHQHU=HLWXQJ-XO\1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH6HSWHPEHU(

 <sup>67</sup> 1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH-DQXDU\,OOXVWULUWHV:LHQHU([WUDEODWW-XO\VT

<sup>68</sup> :LHQHU=HLWXQJ-XO\I

 <sup>69</sup> \*U%HFVNHUHNHU:RFKHQEODWW9RO;;,,,1R2FWREHU1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH-DQXDU\

<sup>75</sup> 1HXLJNHLWV:HOW%ODWW6HSWHPEHU

 <sup>76</sup> 'DV9DWHUODQG2FWREHU³>«@(GPXQG)DUDJRFKLQHVLVFKHU0DQGDULQ]ZHLWHU&ODVVH´

**Fig. 8** U.S. Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department: "Commercial map of China showing Treaty ports, Ports of Foreign Control, Railways, Telegraphs, Waterways, etc. 1899." The postings of the employees of the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs from Austria-Hungary who are mentioned in this text can be easily located with the help of this map. [Wikimedia Commons]

The Vienna-born Arthur von Rosthorn (1862– 1945),78 who joined the Customs in July 1883 (Chinese name according to the Customs List: Luo Shiheng 㖵༛ᙶ79) and left it in 1893, published "On the Tea Cultivation in Western Ssüch'uan" (1895). Rosthorn based his study not only on reports and papers RQWKLVVXEMHFWEXWDOVRRQDIRUPRI¿HOGUHVHDUFK

In 1891, when I made the journey from Tachienlu [Dajianlu ᢃ㇝⡀@ YLk 7¶LHQFK¶XDQ >7LDQTXDQ ཙ ޘ@WR<DFKRX ><D]KRX䳵ᐎ], I had opportunities for observing the more outward and ostensible features of the trade; and, continuing to pursue the subject afterwards, I was able, through exceptional facilities, to bring together sundry details not hitherto commonly known […].80

 <sup>78</sup> On Rosthorn's sinological work, see Führer 2001, 97–123.

 <sup>79</sup> Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General: Service List, 16th ed., 1890, 13.

 <sup>80</sup> Rosthorn 1895, 7.

Travel across various parts of China was necessary IRU R൶FHUV RI WKH ,PSHULDO &KLQHVH 0DULWLPH &XVtoms to reach their places of duty. According to the editions of the Service List for the years 1876 to WKHIRXU\$XVWULDQ+XQJDULDQR൶FHUVZRUNHGLQ custom houses all over China. Owing to new appointments they had to move regularly from one place of employment to another: from Niuzhuang ⢋ 㦺 in the north (L. von Fries) to Lappa ᤡे (Faragó) and Qiongzhou ⫺ᐎ (S. von Fries) in the VRXWK DQG IURP <LFKDQJ ᇌ᰼ RQ WKH <DQJW]H / von Fries; Rosthorn) to Tamsui, i.e. Danshui ␑≤ (Faragó) and Takow, i.e. Dagou ᢃ⤇ (S. von Fries) on the island of Taiwan, not to mention appointments to Shanghai (Rosthorn, Faragó), Tianjin )DUDJy DQG WKH KHDGTXDUWHUV LQ %HLMLQJ / YRQ Fries; Rosthorn).81

According to an article in the *Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient* (1899), one Hungarian (Faragó) and four Austrians were employed by the Imperial Chinese Maritime Customs (**Fig. 8**).82 One of the four Austrians was Erwin Ritter von Zach (1872–1942; Chinese name Sha Ewen ⋉䄔᮷; serving from November 189783), who later joined the Austro-Hungarian consular service and became well known for his translations of Chinese poetry.84 According to the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs' *Service List*, three Austrians had joined in June-July 1898: Maximilian Franz Hey (1876–1914; Hai Maliang ⎧俜㢟, stationed in Tianjin in 1901), Fritz Materna (Ma Dena 俜ᗧ䛓, stationed in Beihai े ⎧/Pakhoi in 1901), and K. J. Andès (An Deshi ᆹᗇ ༛, stationed in Wuzhou ỗᐎin 1901).85

#### **2.3. Wine and weapons: Austrian experts and 'merchants' in China**

Grapes are only used as fruit and for more than ten \HDUV DQ\$XVWULDQ KDV EHHQWKH ¿UVW DQG RQO\ SHUson trying to produce grape wine — without having achieved noteworthy success so far, as he told me.86

The Austrian expert mentioned in this remark by Fritz Materna was Maximilian Freiherr von Babo (1862–1933), son of August Wilhelm von Babo (1827–1894), founder of the viticultural college in Klosterneuburg near Vienna.87 Max von Babo (as he mostly is called in the sources) took up his post in <DQWDL✏㠪/Zhifu 㣍㖈 on the northern shore of the Shandong Peninsula in the summer of 1896.88 In the summer of 1900, Babo "in every respect […] rendered the most grateful services" to the Austro-Hungarian navy.89

For more than two decades (until China declared war on Austria-Hungary in 1917), Babo worked for =KDQJ <X QLDQJMLX JRQJVL ᕥ㼅䟰䞂ޜਨ — also NQRZQ DV&KDQJ< &R RU 3LRQHHU:LQH&RPpany. This company had been founded some years earlier by the overseas Chinese businessman Zhang Zhenxun ᕥᥟऋ (*c.*1840–1916; also known as Zhang Bishi ᕥᕬ༛ or Cheong Fatt Tze).90 Shortly DIWHU %DER KDG EHHQ KLUHG E\ WKH ¿UP \$XVWULDQ newspapers wrote of an emerging East Asian competition for European wines;91 about a decade later, a short note in *6FLHQWL¿F\$PHULFDQ* gave a summary of the whole enterprise:

 <sup>81</sup> Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General: Service List, 2nd ed., 1876; 3rd ed., 1877; 6th ed. 1880; 9th ed. 1883; 10th ed., 1884; 13th ed., 1887; 14th ed., 1888; 15th ed., 1889; 16th ed., 1890; 19th ed., 1893. 82 202 ³\*HJHQZlUWLJ VLQGLQ GHU9HUZDOWXQJ GHU NDLVHUOLFK FKLQHVLVFKHQ 6HH]|OOH &RQFHSWVEUDQFKH IQI 1DWLRQDOH

vertreten, und zwar ein Commissioner, ein Ungar, und vier Assistenten, Oesterreicher." 83 Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General, Service List, 27th ed., 1901, 2.

 <sup>84</sup> See Karl Ritter von Scherzer's remarks in: Neue Freie Presse, 19 July 1900, 14. Apart from Zach, Scherzer mentions the Fries brothers and Arthur von Rosthorn. On Zach's sinological work, see Führer 2001, 157–187, on his later years in China (1901–08), see Lehner 2002b. 85 Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General, Service List, 27th ed., 1901, 16.

 <sup>86</sup> Materna 1908, 105.

 <sup>87</sup> Christies (London Kensington), Live auction 5074. The Art of Food And Drink (16 January 2014) Lot 52: "Wine in China" (https://www.christies.com/lot/lot-wine-in-china-changyu-pioneer-wine-5762524/?lid=1&sc\_lang=en, accessed 17 Feb 2021). 88 See Godley 1986.

 <sup>89</sup> Winterhalder 1902, 90.

 <sup>90</sup> Christies (London Kensington), Live auction 5074 (see footnote 87).

 <sup>91 &</sup>quot;Wein aus China", in: Reichspost, 11 September 1896, 11.

[…] The hill-land near Chefoo was bought by a rich Chinaman and grapes from the principal wine-producing countries of Europe were planted under the supervision of a European expert, who still has charge of the vineyards and winery […] It is reported that some of the wines have been attacked by phylloxera, but most of them seem immune to the pest. The winery is in the environs of Chefoo and the wine is stored in large casks, made in sections in Austria and put together in Chefoo […].92

About two decades earlier than Babo, the Vienna-born Hermann Mandl had embarked on a career in China. Under the title "A Viennese in Shanghai", the *Neues Wiener Tagblatt* presented some information on Mandl's career. Mandl's father was known as 'Berliner Mandl', a "well-known personality in the circles of Viennese society." Having received a business education and training in foreign languages, Mandl had left Vienna after the death of his father and went to Shanghai, where he worked for various companies.93 One of these companies sent him on an in-ODQGMRXUQH\WRWKH KHDGTXDUWHUV RIWKH IDPRXV JHQeral, later governor-general, of the provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu, Zuo Zongtang ᐖᇇἐ (1812– 1885) in Lanzhou. Mandl had to accompany a consignment of European machines reserved for the newly established cloth factory [*Lanzhou zhiniju* 㱝ᐎ 㒄ተ] in that city. Mandl attracted Zuo's attention and was hired by him as an English interpreter. The 'job interview' took place at Zuo's temporary head-TXDUWHUVLQ+DPLᇶ in August 1880.94 Afterwards, Mandl became Krupp's general agent in China, rose "to honour and fortune" [*zu Ehren und Vermögen*], and was elevated to the rank of Mandarin by the Emperor of China. In 1890, Emperor Francis Joseph awarded Mandl the Order of the Iron Crown.95 Mandl donated various objects to Austrian museums. To the Museum of Trade [*k.k. Öster reichisches Handelsmuseum*, in existence until 1925], he donated a "collection of embroidered Chinese state gowns."96 Some years before, Mandl had been awarded the Order of the Double Dragon [*shuanglong baoxing* 䴉喽ሦᱏ], 5th class.97 The Austro-Hungarian consul in Shanghai, Joseph Haas, wrote in a report of 10 February 1891: Hermann Mandl is "a warm-hearted patriot who at any time supports Austro-Hungarian interests in a most honest and most energetic way."98

In March 1892, however, the *Grazer Tagblatt* published a rather biased and antisemitic article on Mandl's career in China labelling him "an international *parvenu*" and "a strange international personality playing a certain role in European circles within China [*eine internationale Persönlichkeit sonderbarster Art, welche in den europäischen Kreisen Chinas eine gewisse Rolle spielt*]."99 The article claimed that after being forced to leave Austria-Hun-JDU\ ³RZLQJ WR TXHVWLRQDEOH ¿QDQFLDO GHDOLQJV´ 0DQGOZHQWWR6KDQJKDL\$W¿UVWKHKDGVRPHGL൶ culties to establish himself (amongst other things, he was said to have sold bibles), but later became well-informed about the smuggling of opium and other goods and managed to gain employment with a foreign wholesaler.100 Thanks to his successful jour-QH\WRWKHKHDGTXDUWHUVRI=XR=RQJWDQJ0DQGOKDG attracted the attention of the leading, largest foreign EXVLQHVV ¿UP LQ 6KDQJKDL \$V WKH *Grazer Tagblatt*  put it in 1892, "the former Israelite bible vendor now became head of the bribery department of Jardine Matheson & Co. with a monthly salary of 5000 mark."101 The journal also published a reply by Mandl, who was in Graz at that time. Mandl stated WKDW KH ZDV QRW D -HZ GLG QRW KDYH WR ÀHH IURP Austria, and had never defrauded the Chinese Government through ammunitions deals.102

 <sup>92</sup> ³:LQH0DNLQJLQWKH3URYLQFHRI6KDQWXQJ&KLQD´LQ6FLHQWL¿F\$PHULFDQ\$SULO

<sup>93</sup> ³(LQ:LHQHULQ6KDQJKDL´LQ1HXHV:LHQHU7DJEODWW1RYHPEHUVT2ELWXDULHVRI/HRSROG-RVHSK0DQGOLQ1HXHV :LHQHU7DJEODWW 0D\ 1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH 0D\ 0 VT\$Q RELWXDU\ RI+HUPDQQ0DQGOLQ1HXH)UHLH Presse, 8 March 1922 (M), 5. 94 Kreitner 1882, 416. For a map of Mandl's route, see ibid. 417.

 <sup>95 &</sup>quot;Ein Wiener in Shanghai", in: Neues Wiener Tagblatt, 14 November 1890, 4.

 <sup>96</sup> Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung, 29 November 1887, 4.

 <sup>97</sup> Neues Wiener Tagblatt, 4 December 1885, 19. On the Order of the Double Dragon, see Gritzner 1893, 60–69 (with illustrations) and Brunnert & Hagelstrom 1912, 499 f. (No. 953). 98 Quoted in Lehner 1995, 263, n. 952.

 <sup>99</sup> ³(LQLQWHUQDWLRQDOHU(PSRUN|PPOLQJ´LQ\*UD]HU7DJEODWW0DUFK7KHDUWLFOH UHÀHFWVGLVFXVVLRQVLQ\*HUPDQ\FRQcerning Mandl's corrupt business practices and obviously refers to some paragraphs in the antisemitic pamphlet of Paasch 1891: SDUW,VT

 <sup>100 &</sup>quot;Ein internationaler Emporkömmling", in: Grazer Tagblatt, 16 March 1892, 7.

 <sup>101</sup> Ibid.

 <sup>102</sup> Grazer Tagblatt, 19 March 1892, 2.

According to the *Chronicle and Directory for China* (1894 edition), Mandl also served as a Dutch consul in Tianjin, and the Shanghai branch of the ¿UP + 0DQGO &R >;LQ\L ؑ㗙 RU ;LQ\L \DQJhang ؑ㗙⌻㹼] served as an agent for the Donau ,QVXUDQFH6RFLHW\RI9LHQQD103:KHQ/L+RQJ]KDQJ ᵾ卫ㄐ RQH RI WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW VWDWHVPHQ RI QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ &KLQD WUDYHOOHG WR (XURSH DQG \$PHULFDLQ0DQGOZDVSDUWRIKLVHQWRXUDJH

'XULQJWKH9LFHUR\¶VVWD\LQ+ROODQGDQG%HOJLXP 0U 0DQGO ZLOO WDNH RYHU WKH SRVLWLRQ WKDW 0U 'HWULQJ LV QRZ RFFXS\LQJ EXW DW WKH H[SUHVV UH-TXHVWRIWKH9LFHUR\WRZKRPKH >LH0U0DQGO@ LV DEOH WR SURYLGH LQIRUPDWLRQ LQ &KLQHVH DW DQ\ WLPHKHKDVDOUHDG\MRLQHGWKHHQWRXUDJH<sup>104</sup>

,QWKHODWHV0DQGOOHIW&KLQDIRU3DULV105 and in -XQH UXPRXU KDG LW WKDW KH ZRXOG VHWWOH LQ \$XVWULD \$QRWKHU \$XVWULDQ PHUFKDQW DFWLYH LQ &KLQD \*XVWDY .UHPVLU DOVR KDG FRQWDFWV ZLWK 0DQGO.UHPVLU RZQHU RIWKH ¿UP\*XVWDY.UHPVLU &R >.DPLQJVL L H .DQJPLQJUXL ᓧ䣈⪎ Shanghai]107GLHGLQ6KDQJKDLLQ\$SULO<sup>108</sup>

#### **2.4. Roman Catholic missionaries**

7KH ZRUN DQG LPSDFW RI PLVVLRQDULHV IURP WKH +DEVEXUJPRQDUFK\ZKRZRUNHGLQ&KLQDLQWKHODWH QLQHWHHQWKDQGHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXULHVKDYH VR IDU UHPDLQHG ODUJHO\ XQH[SORUHG² ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI3 -RVHI)UHLQDGHPHW] ±DQG3\*HRUJ )URHZLV ±ZKRERWKZRUNHG IRUWKH6R-FLHWDV9HUEL'LYLQLLQWKH6KDQGRQJSURYLQFH)UHLQ-DGHPHW]ZHQWWR&KLQDLQDQGVWDUWHGZRUNLQJ LQ 6KDQGRQJLQ \$IWHU\*HUPDQ\WRRN RYHUWKH SURWHFWLRQ RI WKH PLVVLRQV LQ 6KDQGRQJ  KH ZURWH ³7KH \*HUPDQ LPSHULDO HDJOH KDV VSUHDG KLV ZLQJV RYHU -HQ,=KDR=L ><DQ<L&DR-L އ⊳ᴩ ☏ 109 LH WKH &DWKROLF PLVVLRQ LQ 6RXWKHUQ 6KDQ-GRQJ@ >«@ KH WRRN LW XSRQ KLPVHOI WR SURWHFW WKH ZRUN RI WKH \*HUPDQ &DWKROLF PLVVLRQDULHV DJDLQVW WKHRXWEXUVWVRI&KLQHVH IDQDWLFLVPDQGSDJDQ IUHQ- ]\´110 \$IWHU \*HUPDQ\ KDG RFFXSLHG 4LQJGDR 䶂ጦ DQG -LDR]KRX 㟐ᐎ %D\ )UHLQDGHPHW] XQGHUWRRN D ¿UVW YLVLW RI WKHVH SODFHV LQ )HEUXDU\ ,Q WKH VXPPHURIKHVWD\HGDWKLVPLVVLRQVWDWLRQLQ 3ROLඑ䟼LQWKHLQWHULRURIWKH6KDQGRQJSURYLQFH<sup>111</sup> \$V IRU )URHZLV KH WUDYHOOHG WR &KLQD LQ GXULQJWKHVXPPHURIKHZHQWWR4LQJGDRDQG LQ WKH DIWHUPDWK RI WKH HYHQWV FDXVHG E\ WKH µ%R[- HUV¶KHVHUYHGDVDQLQWHUSUHWHUWRWKH\*HUPDQWURRSV LQ6KDQGRQJIRUDFHUWDLQWLPH

,Q WKH PLGV DW OHDVW IRXU )UDQFLVFDQ PLV-VLRQDULHV IURP 7\URO ZRUNHG LQ &KLQD 3 &DVSDU )XFKV LQ &KLQD IURP  3 \$QVJDU %UDXQ LQ &KLQD XQWLO  3 =HQR 0|OWQHU ± DQG 3 /RUHQ] )XFKV ±113 0|OWQHU KDG WUDLQHG DV D SULQWHU LQ %RO]DQR%R]HQ (PSHURU )UDQFLV -RVHSK KDG SURYLGHG KLP ZLWK D SULQWLQJ SUHVV IRU KLVPLVVLRQDU\ZRUNLQ -LQDQDQG0|OWQHU ³>«@ SULQWHG ERRNV DQG SDPSKOHWV LQ WKH &KLQHVH ODQJXDJHDIWHUWKHLQYHQWLRQ RI ELVKRS3&RVL >«@ ZKRXVHGWRSULQW&KLQHVHWH[WVLQ/DWLQVFULSWDIWHU having introduced characters for those sounds not H[LVWLQJLQRXUODQJXDJH´<sup>114</sup>

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 <sup>103</sup> &KURQLFOHDQG'LUHFWRU\IRU&KLQD'XWFKFRQVXO³'RQDX´LQVXUDQFHVRFLHW\

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 <sup>109</sup> 7KHIRXUFKDUDFWHUVUHIHUWRWKHFLUFXLWVRI<DQ]KRXއᐎ<L]KRX⊲ᐎ&DR]KRXᴩᐎ and Jining ☏ሗ

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 <sup>114</sup> 5HLFKVSRVW0D\VT)RUWKHFRQWH[WVHH/HKQHUI

<sup>115</sup> 9DQGHQ%UDQGW1R

jiang province.116 On a visit to the Habsburg monar-FK\LQ±hUJHZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\D¿IWHHQ year-old Chinese boy, and both were dressed in Chinese clothes.117 Ürge and his young companion were received in audience by Archduke Karl Ludwig (1833–1895), the younger brother of Emperor Francis Joseph and, at that time, the heir to the throne.118

After the death of Ürge in 1898, another Hungari-DQERUQ /D]DULVW -RVHI:LO¿QJHU ± &KLnese name Lang Kezhi 䛾ݻᘇ), arrived in the Zhe-MLDQJ SURYLQFH ,Q \$SULO :LO¿QJHU ZDV wounded in an attack. An investigation into the incident was started but, soon, was overtaken by the events of the summer of 1900 in northern China.119 In that summer, another Lazarist from Austria, Friedrich Sageder (Chinese name Sha Kaitai ⋉䮻⌠120), ZRUNLQJLQWKH-LDQJ[LSURYLQFHKDGWRÀHHDQDQJU\ crowd on a war junk: "I was hardly in the junk when a hail of stones hit it. […] From the junk I could see WKH LPPHQVH ¿UH RI RXU PLVVLRQ WKURXJK D VPDOO opening."121

#### **3. Imperialist opportunities: the 'scramble for China' and the Boxer War**

#### **3.1. Austria-Hungary and the scramble for China**

A few weeks after the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, the *Neue Freie Presse* published the summary of a letter in which the unnamed author pointed out the dangers faced by all foreigners in China and mentioned news of anti-foreign assaults in Beijing. At that time, Austria-Hungary still only had one diplomatic representative for both China and Japan, who resided in Tokyo. While the position of foreigners in Japan did not seem to be in any danger at that time, it would be useful "if the Austro-Hungarian minister were to take up his post in Shanghai or Peking." Moreover, Austria-Hungary should dispatch "some warships and gunboats to Shanghai and Tientsin [Tianjin] to protect her citizens living in China."122 Although this advice was not heeded, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 was followed with interest in Austro-Hungarian military circles. This is attested by publications on both land and sea war.123

Only after the end of the Sino-Japanese War did Austria-Hungary start to reorganise her diplomatic representation in East Asia. In 1896 it was decided to split the Austro-Hungarian diplomatic representation for China and Japan and establish an Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing (**Fig. 9**). Mori[t]z Freiherr Czikann von Wahlborn (1847–1909, see Fig. 3b in the main chapter of this book) was appointed an envoy to China, which he reached in April 1897 travelling aboard H.M.S. *Kaiser Franz Joseph I*. Until the construction of the Austro-Hungarian legation was completed,124 Czikann resided on the premises of the Spanish legation. Moreover, the Austro-Hungarian consular representation in Hong Kong was reorganised. In 1897, the honorary merchant-consuls were replaced by career consuls GLVSDWFKHGE\WKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV<sup>125</sup>

The presence of Austro-Hungarian warships in Chinese waters had developed slowly and hesitantly. Apart from the above-mentioned voyages of the *Carolina* (1820–1822) and *Novara* (1857–1859), the Austro-Hungarian expedition that was organised to

 <sup>116</sup> Van den Brandt 1936, No. 264.

<sup>117</sup> 0lKULVFKHV7DJEODWW0DUFKVXSSOHPHQW

 <sup>118</sup> Znaimer Wochenblatt, 15 February 1890, 10. Apart from diplomatic representatives of China who did not reside in Austria-Hungary and who presented their credentials in Vienna, the imperial family had already received Chinese visitors in the Hofburg once before. See: Die Presse, 14 April 1853, 3: "The day before yesterday the Chinese family of Mr Chung-Atai present here was ordered to the Imperial and Royal Castle [*k.k. Burg*] and had the honour of appearing in the apartments of Her Imperial and Royal Highness Archduchess Sophie before His Majesty the Emperor and the Supreme Court [*vor Sr. Majestät dem Kaiser und dem Allerhöchsten Hofe*]." On the European tour (including visits to London, Paris, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Berlin, Vienna, Prague and Trieste) of this "Chinese family" see Löwendahl 2008, vol. II, 200 f. (No. 1133). 119 /HKQHU /HKQHU±)RU:LO¿QJHU¶V&KLQHVHQDPHVHHYDQGHQ%UDQGW1R

 <sup>120</sup> Van den Brandt 1936, No. 392.

 <sup>121</sup> Das Vaterland, 28 October 1900, 10. On the fate of missionaries from Austria-Hungary in China in 1900, see Lehner & Lehner 2002, 126–131. 122 Neue Freie Presse, 29 September 1894, 4.

<sup>123</sup> /LSRãüDNDQG³3´

 <sup>124</sup> Lehner 1998c.

 <sup>125</sup> On the reorganisation of the Austro-Hungarian consulate in Hong Kong, see Lehner 1995, 301–304.

**Fig. 9** 0DSRIWKHOHJDWLRQTXDUWHULQ%HLMLQJ7KH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQOHJDWLRQ1RRQWKHOHJHQGZDVVLWXDWHGLQWKHQRUWKHDVWHUQ FRUQHURIWKHOHJDWLRQTXDUWHU>:LQWHUKDOGHU@)RUWKHOHJDWLRQEXLOGLQJVHH)LJVDELQWKHPDLQFKDSWHURIWKLVERRN

conclude treaties with Siam, China, and Japan (1868–1870) involved two ships. Leaving out the voyages of H.M.S. *Fasana* and H.M.S. *Erzherzog Friedrich* — the latter being a circumnavigation in the early 1870s, a regular presence of the Austro-Hungarian navy in East Asian seas only started in the mid-1880s. In the period from 1884–85 to 1893–94, at least eleven ships of the Austro-Hungarian navy visited East Asia — one of them carried Archduke Franz Ferdinand on his above-mentioned

#### 34 \*ൾඈඋ/ൾඁඇൾඋ

**Fig. 10** Map of Zhejiang ('Tschekiang') and Fujian ('Fo-kien') provinces. Detail from "Ost-China, Korea und Japan", Map No. 66 in Stieler's *Hand-Atlas,* 8th ed. (1891). The six bays mentioned in the text are rendered on the map as follows: "San mun B." = Sanmen, "Lo tsing" = Leqing, "Nam kuan" = Nanguan, "Sam sah Bai" = Sansha, "Hing Hua Sund" = Xinghua, "Tsiuan tschou" = Quanzhou. [Stieler 1891, detail of map 62]

journey around the world (1892–93).126 These missions also had to report on economic perspectives and on the development of the East Asian line of the Austrian Lloyd (the latter had reached Hong Kong in 1880 and was extended to Shanghai in 1892).127 The VHFRQGKDOIRIWKHVVDZDVLJQL¿FDQWLQFUHDVHLQ the Austro-Hungarian naval presence in China (**Fig. 10**,QWKH\HDUVWRDWOHDVW¿YH\$XVtro-Hungarian warships visited Chinese harbours. 128

This increase in numbers corresponded with increased interest in the international politics of East Asia. Owing to a lack of economic prerequisites,

 <sup>126</sup> See the list in Mayer & Winkler 1991, 204, 206.

 <sup>127</sup> See Lee 2007. For the extension to Shanghai, see also Lehner 1995, 258.

 <sup>128</sup> See the list in Mayer & Winkler 1991, 208.

Austria-Hungary did not actively participate in the 'scramble for China', and corresponding plans were QHYHU UHDOLVHG <HW LQ WKH \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ navy explored six bays along the Chinese coast for several weeks. The original intention being to occupy one of them, the Austrians explored and mapped two bays in the Zhejiang province (Sanmen й䮰DQG/HTLQJ′) and four bays in the Fujian province (Nanguan ই䰌 close to the border to the Zhejiang province, Sansha й⋉, Xinghua 㠸ॆ, and Quanzhou ⋹ᐎ).129

Rumours about this secret mission spread across the Austrian press from March 1899, but the plans were abandoned owing to new developments in the international relations of the Chinese Empire. Not only had the Chinese government been forced by Japan to declare that it would not alienate any part of the Fujian province to a third power, but Japan also ¿UPO\ RSSRVHG VLPLODU ,WDOLDQ FODLPV WR WKH above-mentioned Sanmen Bay (March 1899). 130

#### **3.2. China 1900: Austria-Hungary and the Boxer War**

In early 1900, Western observers in China repeatedly reported on the activities of the 'Boxers'. These Boxers, originally members of a secret society named *Yihe quan* 㗙઼ᤣ [lit., Fists of Righteous Harmony], TXLFNO\ VSUHDG DFURVV WKH 6KDQGRQJ SURYLQFH\$IWHU being suppressed by the provincial authorities, the VXSSRUWHUVRIWKH<LKHTXDQPRYHGWRWKH=KLOLSURYince and, thus, to the vicinity of Beijing. After they were legalised by the Qing court, they were renamed *Yihe tuan* 㗙઼ൈ [Militia of Righteous Harmony]. It was only towards the end of May 1900 that diplo-PDWLF UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV LQ %HLMLQJ UHTXHVWHG WURRSV IURPIRUHLJQZDUVKLSVO\LQJR൵WKHFRDVWLQWKH\*XOI of Bohai ⎧ to protect the legations.

Following other nations, German and Austrian troop contingents reached the Beijing legations on 3 June 1900. Shortly thereafter, railway services and the telegraph connection from Beijing to Tianjin ZHUHLQWHUUXSWHG7KXVD¿UVWDWWHPSWWR UHOLHYHWKH Beijing legations failed and the relief force of 2000 men (among them 25 Austrians and Hungarians) had to retreat to Tianjin. Following the foreign capture of the Dagu forts (17 June 1900) and the assassination of the German envoy, von Ketteler (20 June 1900), the siege of the Beijing legations by Boxers began. ,QWKH¿UVWKRXUVRIWKLVVLHJHWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ legation was abandoned by its defenders because of its exposed location and the Austrians retreated to the French legation.

The escalation of the situation in Beijing was followed closely by political and military circles as well as newspapers in all European countries. In Austria-Hungary, too, preparations began to reinforce troops in East Asia. In contrast to all other powers, it was decided in Vienna not to send any land troops to China. The Austro-Hungarian navy KDGWRHTXLSWKUHHPRUHVKLSV+06*Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia*, H.M.S. *Kaiserin Elisabeth*, and H.M.S. *Aspern*) which, together with H.M.S. *Zenta* IRUPHG WKH ,PSHULDO DQG 5R\DO 6TXDGURQ LQ East Asia [*k.u.k. Eskader für Ostasien*].131

Following the foreign occupation of Tianjin on 14 July 1900, the foreign powers decided to establish the Tianjin Provisional Government [*Tianjin dutong yamen* ཙ⍕䜭㎡㺉䮰: short for *Zhanxing guanli jin jun chengxiang neiwai difang shiwu dutong yamen* ᳛㹼㇑⨶⍕䜑ᓲཆൠᯩһ⢙䜭㎡ 㺉䮰@ZKLFKZDVOHGE\WKUHHR൶FHUVDQGLQFOXGHG representatives of all the powers involved. During the entire existence of this authority, Paul Bauer, a merchant in Tianjin and Imperial and Royal Artillery Lieutenant of the Reserve, acted as the representative of Austria-Hungary.132 The establishment of the Tianjin Provisional Government did not prevent foreign atrocities in the city: "[…] foreign soldiers constantly humiliated and harassed the local population, IUHTXHQWO\ UDSLQJWKH ZRPHQ HVSHFLDOO\LQWKH +Hdong section (east of the river), which was occupied by Russian and German troops."133

Both before and after Tianjin had been taken by foreign troops in mid-July 1900 (**Figs. 11a,b**), further foreign reinforcements arrived in northern China. The relief operation to lift the siege of the Beijing legations began on 4 August 1900.

A few days later, the *Neue Freie Presse* published a map showing the Tianjin region **(Fig. 12)**. The map

 <sup>129</sup> Lehner 1992, 48–66.

 <sup>130</sup> Lehner 2002a.

 <sup>131</sup> 2QWKH,PSHULDODQG5R\DO6TXDGURQLQ(DVW\$VLDVHH:LQWHUKDOGHU±/HKQHU /HKQHU±

<sup>132</sup>:LQWHUKDOGHUVT/HKQHU /HKQHUVT)RUELRJUDSKLFDOLQIRUPDWLRQRQ%DXHUVHH\$JVWQHU\$ERXW Paul Bauer's role to sell the Austro-Hungarian consulate in the former concession of Tientsin, including his signature on the contract of 1923, see the main chapter of this book (cf. Falser, Fig. 71). 133 Cohen 1997, 182.

**Fig. 11a** "Die Unruhen in Nordchina [The riots in northern China]", in: Echo aus Pilsen und Westböhmen, 9 June 1900, 1 [Austrian National Library]

had been provided by the cartographers of Freytag & Berndt and was based on a map produced about two decades earlier by the German Otto Franz von Möl-OHQGRU൵ ± DIWHU H[WHQVLYH WUDYHOV DFURVV northern China (Möllersdorf 1881). The new map showed the various 'parts' of the city of Tianjin, therefore updating the information displayed on the RULJLQDO 0|OOHQGRU൵ PDS :KLOH 0|OOHQGRU൵ RQO\ referred to foreign concessions in general [Fremde Niederlassg.", i.e. foreign concession(s)]134, the map published in the *Neue Freie Presse* in August 1900 (**Fig. 12**) indicated the various parts of the city: apart from the city of "Tientsin" ["Chinesisch", i.e. Chinese], the Japanese, French, English, and German concessions on the western bank of the Baihe are VKRZQ%XWZKHUHDVRQ0|OOHQGRU൵¶VPDSWKH&KLnese city extends well beyond the eastern bank of the Baihe, the map produced by Freytag & Berndt

<sup>134</sup> 1HXH)UHLH3UHVVH\$XJXVW0|OOHQGRU൵SODWH9,,,HQYLURQVRI7LDQMLQ>*Umgebung von Tientsin*] on an inserted map).

**Fig. 11b** ³'LH%HGUlQJXQJGHU)UHPGHQLQ7LHQWVLQ>7KHKDUDVVPHQWRIIRUHLJQHUVLQ7LHQWVLQ@´LQ(FKRDXV3LOVHQXQG:HVW böhmen, 21 July 1900, 1 [Austrian National Library]

depicts this urban area as undeveloped (compare with a French aerial view on **Fig. 13**).

Owing to unfamiliar conditions on the theatre of war, the troops of the Eight Power Alliance (so named although no formal agreement had been PDGHDGYDQFHGDWGL൵HUHQWVSHHGV\*HUPDQ,WDOLDQ and Austro-Hungarian forces did not reach Beijing until 18 August — four days after British, American, Japanese, and Russian troops had entered the city.135

On 28 August, troops of all eight powers (including sixty Austrians and Hungarians) marched through Beijing's 'Forbidden City' (i.e. the semi-urban ensemble of the Imperial Palace).136

From September 1900, Austro-Hungarian troops took part in various operations in the Beijing area. These included an expedition to Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) in November, as well as minor operations in the vicinity of Beijing in December 1900 and January

 <sup>135</sup> See the famous book *Kämpfe in China* [Battles in China] by Theodor von Winterhalder of 1902, 416 f.; Lehner & Lehner 2002, 319. 136 Winterhalder 1902, 433–436; Lehner & Lehner 2002, 362.

**Fig. 12** Untitled map of the region around "Tientsin", produced by *Kartographische Anstalt v. G. Freytag & Berndt,* Vienna, published in the Neue Freie Presse, 9 August 1900, 2. [Austrian National Library]

1901. Like other troop contingents, the Austro-Hungarians were looking for supposed Boxers. Evidence of the guilt of those who were captured and executed during these 'punitive expeditions' [*Strafexpeditionen*] has not always been uncovered.137

After Belgium and Russia had seized some areas to establish concessions in Tianjin, on 7 February 1901 the Austro-Hungarian minister to Beijing (Czikann) asked the I. & R. Ministry for Foreign Affairs by telegraph for permission to occupy "a piece RIODQGQRZWKDWLVTXLWHVXLWDEOHIRUWKLVRQWKHOHIW bank of the Peiho [Baihe] […], adjacent to Italian occupied land, fairly close to the station, opposite the Chinese city […] for Austria-Hungary."138

On 16 February 1901, a few days after the Austro-Hungarian occupation started, the Socialist

 <sup>137</sup> Lehner & Lehner 2002, 406–437. The role of Austria-Hungary in this regard was also documented in text and images by the &]HFKWUDYHOOHU(QULTXH6WDQNR9Ui]±VHH1DNODGiORYiLPDJHVDQGWH[W

<sup>138</sup> /HKQHU /HKQHU±IRUWKLVTXRWHVHH2QIRUHLJQFRQFHVVLRQVLQ7LDQMLQVHH/LXDVZHOODVWKHUHVXOWVRI the "Tianjin under Nine Flags" project at the University of Bristol, and the maps and bibliography of the main part of this book.

**Fig. 13** Illustration No. 7: Aerial view of Tianjin from west to east (1900/01). The Chinese city can be seen in the foreground WKHVWUDLJKWOLQHWRWKHOHIWDQGULJKWRIWKHFLW\JDWHLVWKHHDVWHUQFLW\ZDOOLQWKHEDFNJURXQGÀRZVWKH+DLKHPRVWO\FDOOHG 'Baihe' by Europeans) and the already densely built-up area of the (future) Austro-Hungarian concession is visible. Published in: *La Chine à terre et en ballon* (c.1901), planche 31.

**Fig. 14a** Map of "Tientsin", with numbered locations and visual axes of the photographs taken by James Ricalton (detail with "Ho tung" [*hedong* ⋣ᶡ, i.e. east of the river], the site of the later Austro-Hungarian concession) [Ricalton 1900, map 7]

*Arbei ter-Zeitung* published a critical comment on the topic of Austria in China:

So, Austria now also has a Chinese colony. It is so large that it can be easily circled on foot in twenty minutes, and the government is naturally ashamed to call it a colony. The English term "settlement" is WKHUHIRUH R൶FLDOO\ XVHG IRUWKLV DUHD EHFDXVHWKH German word *Siedelung* does not sound too elegant. The Austrian colony [...] represents a small DUHD RI VTXDUH NLORPHWUHVZKLFKLV IRUHLJQWR China and whose inmates [*Insassen*] live according to Austrian and Hungarian laws. The consulate building and a mission house with church and cemetery, are pretty much everything that can be accommodated in this space in terms of buildings.139

At the end of the siege of Tianjin in mid-July 1900, the American photographer James Ricalton (1844– 1929) took, based on a map (**Fig. 14a**), several pictures of the city. These photographs clearly show the H[WHQWRIGHVWUXFWLRQFDXVHGE\WKH¿JKWLQJ

One of these pictures (**Fig. 14b**) was taken in the northern part of the future Austro-Hungarian concession and bears the following caption: "Family of the

 <sup>139</sup> Arbeiter-Zeitung, 16 February 1901, 4.

**Fig. 14b** "Family of the Lower Class 'Chowing' in their Home, partially destroyed during the Siege, Tientsin, China", 1900, China, by James Ricalton, Underwood & Underwood [Ricalton 1901, No. 65]

Lower Class 'Chowing' in Their Home, Partially Destroyed during the Siege, Tientsin [Tianjin]". In his book, *China Through a Stereoscope*, Ricalton provided detailed descriptions for all his photographs. In the introduction to the description of No. KH PHQWLRQHG WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV RI WKH ¿JKWLQJ over several weeks in Tientsin/Tianjin and the new situation experienced by its inhabitants following the foreign occupation of the city and its suburbs:

+HUH DV XVXDO ZH ¿QG WKH KRXVH SDUWLDOO\ GH-VWUR\HGEXWDVWKHEXLOGLQJVDUHFKLHÀ\RIFOD\DQG unburned brick, many of them furnished little fuel IRUWKHÀDPHVDQGVRHVFDSHGGHVWUXFWLRQ7KHLQhabitants are now returning to reoccupy their old KDXQWVZKHQIRXQGKDELWDEOHDQGZH¿QGWKLVIDPily of the lower class 'chowing' after their wonted fashion. Whether afraid of the camera or not, they are now under the Allies and necessity has no choice; they meekly do our bidding.140

The photographs taken by French balloonists and Ricalton clearly show that the area occupied by Austria-Hungary in February 1901 was not vacant. This is also evident in the "orientation map [*Übersichtsplan*] of Tientsin" published in Winterhalder's book on the Austro-Hungarian participation in the events of 1900 (**Fig. 15**).

### **4. From a tent to urban development: the very beginnings of the Austrian administration**

In the concluding section of his account of Austria-Hungary's participation in the Boxer War, Theodor Ritter von Winterhalder (1902) described WKHHQGRIWKH,PSHULDO 5R\DO6TXDGURQ¶VLQYROYHment in East Asia and mentioned that, in the summer of 1901, the Austro-Hungarian detachment in Tianjin ZDV DERXW ³WR PRYH WR D<DPHQ >LH *yamen* 㺉䮰] located in the occupied territory [of the Austro-Hungarian concession]. As an illustration of this relocation, Winterhalder included a photograph showing an Austro-Hungarian marine before a tent on the territory occupied by Austria-Hungary in February 1901 (**Fig. 16**).141

The territory of the Austro-Hungarian concession was administered by the Provisional Government of Tianjin until 4 August 1902. On that day, the Vice Consul Karl Bernauer took over the administration of the concession on behalf of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. As discussed in further detail in the main chapter of this book, Bernauer's most important tasks after that point included negotiating a formal

 <sup>140</sup> Ricalton 1901, 241.

 <sup>141</sup> Winterhalder 1902, 570.

**Fig. 15** Sketch map of Tientsin/Tianjin. [Winterhalder 1902, 132]

agreement with the Chinese government and preparing a description of the current state of the Austro-Hungarian concession area. The results of both H൵RUWVZHUHQRWLFHGLQWKH\$XVWULDQSUHVV

The Austro-Hungarian consulate in Tianjin did not begin any negotiations with local authorities on a formal agreement to 'take over' the concession until the summer of 1902 — after Russia, Belgium and Ita ly had already concluded their own agreements with the Chinese side. After various necessary steps were arranged with the Tianjin *daotai* (i.e. the circuit intendant) Zhang Lianfen ᕥ㬞㣜 and the *houbu dao* ى㼌䚃 (expectant circuit intendant) Qian Rong 䥒 䧄, a formal agreement concerning the concession [*Tianjin Aoguo zujie zhangcheng hetong* ཙ⍕ྗ഻ 』⭼ㄐ〻ਸ਼; i.e. Tianjin Austrian Concession Charter Contract] was signed on 27 December 1902 by the Tianjin Customs Daotai [*Tianjin haiguan dao* ཙ⍕⎧䰌䚃] Tang Shaoyi ୀ㍩ܰ and Vice Consul

**Fig. 16** Winterhalder 1902: "Guard on the beach of the new concession in Tientsin". [Winterhalder 1902, 570]

Bernauer.142 The Austrian press published a summary of the contract:

>«@ VXFFHHGHGLQ REWDLQLQJWKH SURSHUW\LQ TXHVtion from China without payment. We only had to undertake to compensate the Chinese government for the loss of property tax through an annual lump VXP LQVLJQL¿FDQW FRVWV DUH DOVR OLNHO\ WR DULVH from the fact that several owners of grave sites are to be compensated for relocating them. On the other hand, the concession (*Settlement*) will have an income, since taxes are levied there, and administrative costs will be met from this income. […].143

On 29 December 1901 — only two days after the VLJQLQJ RIWKH FRQWUDFW²<XDQ 6KLNDL㺱цࠡ, the governor-general of Zhili, reported to the Waiwubu ཆउ䜘 &KLQHVH 0LQLVWU\ RI )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV WKDW the Austrian concession in Tianjin was to be viewed DVDYLROHQWRFFXSDWLRQDQGWKDWLWZRXOGEHGL൶FXOW WR IXO¿O /LX ;LDQJURQJ¶Vࢹੁ ῞and other injured parties' demands to obtain other land in compensation (compare Falser Fig. 13).144

On 31 January 1903, Vice Consul Bernauer completed a detailed report on the Austro-Hungarian concession. Part of this report was published by the *Fremden-Blatt* (Vienna). Other Austrian newspapers TXRWHG VKRUWHU RU ORQJHU H[FHUSWV IURP WKH UHSRUW These excerpts contained information on the geographical location and size of the concession, the number of inhabitants, the number and state of buildings and streets, and taxation issues. In addition, Bernauer outlined the administration (including

 <sup>142</sup> Fei 1992, 48 f. For the details about the negotiations and proclamations see the main chapter of this book (compare Falser Fig. 12). 143 5HSRUW IURP 6KDQJKDL -DQXDU\ RULJLQDOO\ SXEOLVKHGLQ )UHPGHQ%ODWW TXRWHG DIWHU 6DO]EXUJHU&KURQLN IU 6WDGW XQG

Land, 27 February 1903, 2. For the main contents of this contract, see Lehner 1995, 325. 144 Qingdai Waiwubu Zhong-Ao guanxi dang'an jingxuan 2001, 67–69 (document No. 15).

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## *Habsburgs going global***. The Austro-Hungarian Concession in Tientsin/Tianjin in China: from a history of failure to a heritage of fake?**

0ංർඁൺൾඅ)ൺඅඌൾඋ

*7KH&RQFHVVLRQVDUHPLQLDWXUHVZLWKPRGL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHFRXQWULHVWKH\UHSUHVHQW* [Mrs Burton St. John, The China Times Guide to Tientsin and Neighbourhood (Tientsin 1908, 5)]

#### **1. Preliminaries, challenges, goals**

Today, we are witnessing a veritable boom in scien-WL¿FLQWHUHVW IRUWKH KLVWRU\ RILQWHUQDWLRQDO FRQFHVsions in China, which lasted from the 1860s to the 1940s. Current research argues that the political, diplomatic, and 'world trade'-related economic micro set-up of these 'inter-national' networks of collaboration and knowledge exchange around 1900, along ZLWKWKHLQGLYLGXDORUMRLQWORJLVWLFVUHTXLUHGIRUWKH infrastructural, urbanistic, and architectural development of the concession system itself, are useful to understand some of the founding factors of what we conceive today as 'globalisation'.

If this historical bridge between 1900 and 2000 in the name of a progressively interconnected world PDNHV FRQFHVVLRQV DQ LPSRUWDQW ¿HOG RI FXUUHQW µJOREDOVWXGLHV¶DVHFRQGVLJQL¿FDQWHOHPHQWZLOOEH considered in this contribution. In China's belated nation-building process into a 'global superpower', old concession networks and areas that operated around 1900 and were, in fact, 'inter-imperialistic', are currently in the best Hobsbawmian sense not only being aesthetically 'reinvented' by local munici pal agencies as supposedly old cosmopolitan 'traditions' linked to China's entry into global modernity; under this 'from history to heritage' logic (as alluded to in the subtitle of this chapter), they are also physically being rediscovered, reconstructed, and even reinvented as multiform cultural heritage, from whole urban formations to individual monuments. In this sense, studying concessions is today extremely insightful for global history studies as well as for cultural heritage studies.

The historic concessions of *Tientsin*, today spelt *Tianjin* (see glossary) — now the third largest urban DUHDLQ&KLQDZLWKDSRSXODWLRQRIVRPH¿IWHHQPLO-OLRQ SHRSOH ² KDYH FRPH WR VFLHQWL¿F DWWHQWLRQ rather recently whereas the city's pre-concession history was already well-known. An early Ming-period town within the walled military fortress of *Tianjinwei* on the Hai River was renamed around 1400; thanks to its geopolitical positioning at the northern HQGRIWKH\*UDQG&DQDOWKHFLW\WRRNR൵GXULQJWKH seventeenth century Qing Dynasty as the economic entry point into Beijing, the new capital some 120 km to the northwest (e. g. Kwan 20011 ). However, it gained unparalleled importance between the late imperial and republican eras from 1860 onwards when, after the Convention of Beijing of 1860 (ending the Second Opium War between China and the Anglo-French powers), Tientsin was turned into an international treaty port. This phase came to an end after World War II; Tientsin was 'liberated' by the Red Army in 1949 (from this historic turning point, which ended foreign dominance of the city, the pronunciation *Tianjin* has been borrowed for the present book), the year of the proclamation of the People's

<sup>1</sup> ,QWKHLQWURGXFWLRQWRKLVPRQRJUDSK.ZDQGLVFXVVHVWKHULVLQJHFRQRPLFLQÀXHQFHRIVDOWPHUFKDQWVVWRULQJWKHLUVDOWLQ7LDQMLQ and then shipping it to the new capital of Beijing along the Grand Canal (Kwan 2001, 22–28). As a reminder of this important HFRQRPLFDVVHWWKH³6DOW,QVSHFWRU¶V2൶FH´DORQJWKH+DL5LYHURQWKHVSRWRIWKHIXWXUH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQZDVQRW only indicated on Chinese and Western maps (see Fig. 9). A series of 'salt heaps' were also mapped, which later were to be removed to allow further development of the concession (see Fig. 11). In his bibliography, Kwan also mentions a series of Chinese and international publications about the pre-concession period of Tianjin.

**Fig. 1** "Map of Tientsin" (1912), printed at Chung-Tung Litho Works Tientsin. Chinese legend with English indications from north to south: *Cheng-Li* (lit. "within the city (walls)", native or Chinese city, in brown), and Austro-Hungarian (in green), Italian (in light orange), Japanese (in pink), Russian (in yellow), French (in grey), British (in blue), and German (in dark orange) concessions. Not on the map, but indicated in the lower right margin: the Belgian concession. [Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, Washington D.C., USA]

Republic of China. With its nine foreign-controlled concessions (*zujie*, literally meaning 'renting zones') and a separate Chinese 'city', Tientsin's set-up of multiple territorialities after 1900 was indeed a 'global microcosm' ranging from the Far East to the Far West **(Fig. 1)**. Politically and physically impactful concessions, which are rather well-researched and much better preserved, were those of France (1860–1946), Great Britain (1860–1943; with the af- ¿OLDWHG \$PHULFDQ FRQFHVVLRQ ± DQG -Dpan (1898–1945), side-by-side with slightly later ones: the German Empire (1899–1917), Russia (1900–1920), Italy (1901–1947) and Belgium (1902–1931). Surprisingly, the ninth concession has remained unknown until today: the one held by Austria-Hungary (1901–1917).

5HVSRQGLQJ WR WKLV VFLHQWL¿F ODFXQD WKH RYHUDOO goal here is to provide a much desired missing piece of the puzzle in order to achieve a better understanding of the short urban and architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession. This agenda will be pursued by drawing on a coherent set of sources from Austrian libraries and archives, both written (published and unpublished) and visual (cartographic and photographic). In this context, a 'spectacular' primary source was rediscovered by the ZULWLQJDXWKRUDQGLVSUHVHQWHGKHUHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPH as central piece of evidence: a hand-drawn scaled development plan and a bound album from *c.*1911 entitled "Österreich-ungarische Niederlassung Tientsin" with 115 black-and-white photographs and a full written description of a tour through the Austro-Hungarian concession only a few years before its handover to the Chinese authorities in 1917. This new archival material will be used to pursue the primary ambition of this publication: to explain the major developmental steps of the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin between 1901 and 1917 through its urban and architectural history (cf. Mengin 2014). In the concluding pages, according to our main goal, which is to situate the historical fabric of the Austro-Hungarian concession within 'hyper-colonial Tientsin' (after Rogaski 2000 and 2004, VHHEHORZRXU¿QGLQJVZLOOEHVHWLQUHODWLRQWRWKH 'heritagisation' processes in the Chinese economic boom city of present-day Tianjin. This second strand can only constitute a preliminary set of observations, VSHFXODWLRQVDQGRSHQTXHVWLRQVIRUIXUWKHUUHVHDUFK DQG GRHV QRW SUHWHQGWR FRPHWR D ¿QDOMXGJHPHQW Nevertheless, it will be illuminated by a selection of UHPDUNDEOH SKRWRJUDSKV WKDW , WRRN GXULQJ D ¿HOG trip in late 2018, roughly one hundred years after the Austrian impact on the city had come to an end.

### **2. The unknown episode of Austria-Hungary in China, archival access and the state of research**

,QP\SUHIDFHWRWKLVERRN,SUR¿OHGWKHIRXUPDMRU reasons why the Austro-Hungarian concession itself a) ultimately was a failure (too late, bad location, little international experience and no support back home), b) fell into oblivion after 1917 as an historical element in the urban fabric of Tianjin (other con-FHVVLRQV FRQWLQXHG WR ÀRXULVK ZKLOH \$XVWULD+XQgary had long left its *de facto* little developed concession during World War I), c) has not been fully researched by the international community until now, and d) is currently under threat, paradoxically WKURXJKUHGLVFRYHU\DQGFRPPRGL¿FDWLRQ\$UJXDEO\ all of these reasons were, and still are, embedded in a 'global logic'. While both the historical context of the Austro-Hungarian concession and its afterlife (a, b) and the ambivalent heritagisation processes on the spot today (d) will be explored in detail in the fol-ORZLQJSDJHVRIWKLVFKDSWHU ,ZRXOGOLNHWREULHÀ\ summarise the state of the (astonishingly scarce) sci-HQWL¿FUHVHDUFKRQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ in relation to on-site studies, current archival access to Austrian archives, and the ongoing problem of the JUDGXDOORVVRI\*HUPDQDVDVFLHQWL¿FODQJXDJH

Austrian research about this topic was primarily SURGXFHGLQWKH¿HOGVRIGLSORPDWLFKLVWRU\DQGSRlitical science — but *not* in urban or architectural history, which this piece of research is doing for the ¿UVW WLPH \$GGLWLRQDOO\ PRVW RI WKH DYDLODEOH UHsearch was produced within the framework of unpublished PhD theses at the University of Vienna that sadly remained unnoticed by international researchers before E-theses began circulating the globe via ProQuest.2 In order to overcome this problem, which is associated with the unfortunate grad-

<sup>2</sup> 1HYHUWKHOHVVLWPXVWEHQRWHGKHUHWKDW3K'WKHVHVLQ\$XVWULDDUHR൶FLDOO\FDWDORJXHGDQGFRXQWDVµVHPLR൶FLDO¶SXEOLFDWLRQVLQ their own right; they are indeed accessible (also to conscientious international researchers) as limited print versions in the relevant *alma mater* university libraries (such as Vienna University in the present case); they are also all collected by the Austrian National Library.

ual loss of German language skills within the global research community, a short *tour d'horizon* of Austrian (German language) research literature into the Austro-Hungarian concession is provided here and related to international investigations.

In the case of the Austrian context, the earliest elaborated historiographical research-based remarks may be found in Johann Wagner's unpublished PhD thesis, *Österreichische Kolonialversuche in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts* [Austria's colonial experiments in the second half of the nineteenth century] (1955), at the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Vienna (see the chapter "Das Settlement Hotung in Tientsin", Wagner 1955, 222–97). 7KH HTXDOO\ XQSXEOLVKHG 3K' WKHVLV *Die Österreichisch-Ungarische Konzession in Tianjin*, by Günter Hörtler followed in 1984 at the same institution; ZLWK WZR IXOO YROXPHV LW SURYLGHV D XQLTXH VRXUFH that was completely unknown until today3 (Hörtler 1984; compare with the contributions by Hungarian researchers, from Józsa 1962/1966, 128–45, to Palvölgyi 2008). In line with the aforementioned 'archival-historiographical logic' along which the 'inter-national' set-up of historical "Tientsin" has, until WRGD\ EHHQ SHUSHWXDWHG WKURXJK GL൵HUHQW DQG PRVW often disconnected national research agendas. As researchers focus until today on their 'own' national (i.e. Japanese, Chinese, British or French, etc.) legacies in present-day "Tianjin" (see the preface of this book), also the Austrian sinologist and historian Hörtler focused on original material stored in the Austrian State Archives (most importantly, the House of Habsburg-related section of *Haus-, Hofund Staatsarchiv HHStA*; other archival material will be mentioned in the present chapter4 ). However, he also complemented this with those Chinese-language primary sources which, as he explained himself, "the National-Chinese Government had brought to Taiwan and made accessible in the *Zhonggyang yanjuiyuan, jindaishi yanjiusuo* (Institute for Modern History, Academia Sinica)" (Hörtler 1984, 141).

Other important (un)published German-language studies covered Tientsin only within the larger context of the political history of both empires around 1900: the Vienna-based historian Georg Lehner — he is the author of the introduction to this book — elaborated KLVORQJODVWLQJ ZRUN RQWKH %R[HU 8SULVLQJ RU<Lhetuan Movement) of 1899–1901 and the diplomatic relations between Austria and China (see Lehner 1992, 86–90; Lehner 1995, 323–42, 427–72; Lehner 1999; Lehner 2002a; Lehner & Lehner 2002, 609–22; and the listed bibliography in the introduction).5

Other studies that are part of these historical investigations lack an explicit architectural focus (see Schusta 1967; Lee 1971, 55–86; Unterrieder 1978; Kaminski & Unterrieder 1980, 449–54; Klein 1984; Heise 1999; Kolm 2001, 86–97; Krasser 2015, 51– 81; Skrivan 2015; Canis 2016; Agstner 2006, 2018, 70–71; Müller, Perterer & Pankraz 2020). Finally, Tientsin has been mentioned in relation to Austria-Hungary's rather episodic exploratory missions around the globe (Randa 1966; Winter 2005; Sauer 2002), its comparatively limited extra-European colonial appetite (Wagner 1955; Loidl 2012/2017; Callaway 2019; Bachinger et al. 2020, with Leidinger 2020), or in recent Habsburg (post-)colonial and global studies (Sauer 2002, 20126 ; Feichtinger 2020).

<sup>3</sup> ,QWKLVFRQWH[WLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRNQRZWKDW+|UWOHU¶VLQGLFDWLRQVRISULPDU\VRXUFHVWKH\ZLOOEHTXRWHGLQWKHIROORZLQJWH[WIURP KLVZRUNPD\KDYHFKDQJHGDIWHUZKHQGRFXPHQWVIURPWKH%HLMLQJ/HJDWLRQ\$UFKLYHZHUHUHFODVVL¿HGDVDUHVXOWWKHLU call/inventory numbers may have changed. 4 I would like to thank my colleague Georg Lehner for helping with mapping out the various archival units that also structured my

research: the holdings of the various departments (*Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv* and *Kriegsarchiv*) of the Austrian State Archives are of central importance for the history of the "Austro-Hungarian" period of the area in Tianjin's concession (see Generaldirektion 1896). The *Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv* (House, Court and State Archives) contain the Political Archives of the Imperial and 5R\DO0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV>*Politisches Archiv des k.u.k. Ministeriums des Äußeren*], including the collected reports of the Austro-Hungarian Legation in Beijing (1896–1917), which were regularly sent to Vienna. These materials are especially valuable as regards the history of the Austro-Hungarian occupation within Tianjin. Apart from China-related material in the Political Archives and archives on administrative matters of the Austro-Hungarian embassies, legations and consular representations (*Administrative Registratur*), the *Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv* holds the Archives of the Austro-Hungarian Legation in Beijing, which DOVRFRQWDLQVRPH¿OHV IURPWKH7LDQMLQ&RQVXODWH\$UFKLYHV7KH *War Archives* [*Kriegsarchiv*] not only contains the correspon-GHQFHRIWKH(DVW\$VLDQ6TXDGURQ±DQGWKHUHSRUWVRIYDULRXVPLVVLRQVWR(DVW\$VLDEHWZHHQDQGEXWDOVR written evidence and some photographic material of the *détachement* of the Austro-Hungarian navy at Tianjin. Finally, the Admin-

istrative Archive [*Verwaltungsarchiv*] is useful to retrieve historical bills, contracts, etc. 5 A small exhibition, *Ein Stück Österreich in China* [A piece of Austria in China], was shown in May 2001 at Vienna University's Main Library in the context of an Austrian-Chinese research symposium. 6 Astonishingly, a themed volume about "Colonial Austria: Austria and the Overseas" in the *Austrian Studies* journal (vol. 20/2012)

did not cover the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin at all.

While Austrian research on the urban and architectural history of former Tientsin is still lacking, neither have the latest research initiatives in Great Britain and France about (their) concessions in Tientsin furthered any new investigations into Austro-Hungarian concession history: this includes the University of Bristol-based network, *Tianjin under QLQH ÀDJV ±*<sup>7</sup> (2008–2012; cf. Bickers & Tiedemann 2007; Bickers 2011; Bickers & Jackson 2016; compare Goodman & Goodman 2012). The same missing link has been perpetuated since 2007 in the Sino-French academic joint venture, *De Tient-VLQj7LDQMLQ,QWHUQDWLRQDOLVDWLRQHWSDWULPRQLDOLVD-WLRQ GHV FRQFHVVLRQV ±* and subsequent French research: a themed volume in the *2XWUH0HUV* journal followed in 2014 (Singaravélou & Tertrais 2014, with Mengin 2014, cf. Singaravélou 2011) and related publications, such as the 2017 monograph, *7LDQMLQFRVPRSROLV*. *8QHDXWUHKLVWRLUHGHODPRQGL-DOLVDWLRQ* did cover the Austro-Hungarian or German concessions, most often, however, only marginally (Singaravélou 2017, 267; cf. Gotteland 2016, 2014). The same lacuna can be detected in the sizeable ongoing Paris-Tianjin research network — named after a fused neologism: *3DWULPRQGLDOLVDWLRQ* — about the FXUUHQW µKHULWDJLVDWLRQ¶ DQG WRXULVWLF FRPPRGL¿FDtion strategies of the concession era's (re)built legacy (for an overview, see Lu & Mengin 2020, &KDX൵HUW<YDUWHWDO

The Australian National University's *China Her-LWDJH3URMHFW* covered "The architectural heritage of Tianjin" in a themed issue of its *&KLQD +HULWDJH 4XDUWHUO\*online journal in March 2010, with guest editor Maurizio Marinelli (Marinelli 2010a/b); following the aforementioned 'national-historiographical archival logic', he may well be the most prominent expert on the Italian concession today (e. g. Marinelli 2009 and 2018; for historical publications Fileti 1921 or Cesari 1937). None of the six papers of *&KLQD +HULWDJH 4XDUWHUO\*, including the recent trend "between development and heritage" (Nobuo & Xu 2010), covered the Austro-Hungarian concession.

American research, unsurprisingly, rather focuses on the US-American impact, and is most prominently represented today, more than a decade after Lewis Bernstein's seminal PhD study, by Ruth Rogaski, with her publications on the aspect of 'hygienic modernity' in treaty ports like Tianjin (Rogaski 2000, 2004, see below; compare with some of the earliest studies by Lieberthal 1980, Hershatter 1986, Bernstein 1988). A focus on lifestyle and housing cultures was most recently added by Elizabeth LaCouture (2021, cf. LaCouture 2010). While Japanese or Belgian researchers have equally investigated 'their' former concessions in historical Tientsin (e. g. Toru 20028 or Dussart-Desart 2017), we cannot cite any examples of publications about the Russian concession.

Last but not least, the global dimension of scholarship has been enriched with long-standing Chinese research, both in its original language and English. However, Europe's imperialist history in the Far East was heavily downgraded during Maoist China and this trend continued in the years after the 1989 political crackdowns (the infamous Tiananmen Incident is often quoted as the prime ideological threshold). We can only speculate that Chinese scholars, in particular, began to experience the tightening up of the Chinese archives and the topic of the imperialist history of the Tientsin concession era during that pe-ULRG+RZHYHUZHFRXOG¿QGDIHZLPSRUWDQWUHVXOWV dating from that time (cf. Gao 1990; Fei 1991; Fang 1995; Liu 1996; Shang & Liu 1996). Arguably, the ¿UVWGHWDLOHG&KLQHVHVWXG\RIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ episode in China was produced by Chinyun Lee, ZLWKD¿UVWVXPPDU\/HHFI/HH while Liu Haiyan has regularly contributed to the wider concession-era history, research about which has accelerated considerably since 2000 (Liu & Stapleton 2006;9 Wu 2007; Shang 2008; Li 2010, 50– 88; Liu 2011; Zhang & Liu 2013; Liu et al. 2016;10 Kan 2017; Zhao 2018; Ding et al. 2018; Hong 2018, 2019). The recent trend in cultural heritage studies of historical *7LHQWVLQ* proved useful for the present UHVHDUFKEHFDXVHLW UHÀHFWVD VWURQJ&KLQHVHDZDUH-

 <sup>7</sup> 7KHIRUPHUZHEVLWHKWWSZZZEULVWRODFXNWLDQMLQSURMHFWWLDQMLQQLQHÀDJVUHWULHYHG-XQH

 <sup>8</sup> Results of the *7RN\R5HVHDUFK\*URXSRQWKH+LVWRU\RI7LDQMLQ* are summarised in Liu & Stapleton 2006 (see below). 9 Original Chinese and Japanese research about Tientsin/Tianjin is summarised here in great detail.

 <sup>10</sup> ,QWKLV DUWLFOH IXUWKHU&KLQHVH VWXGLHV IURP XQSXEOLVKHG TXDOL¿FDWLRQ VFULSWVWR KLVWRULFDOPDS FROOHFWLRQV DUWLFOHV DQGPRQRgraphs) are listed.

**Fig. 2a** Map of Tientsin in 1870 as reproduced in the second volume of Hosea Ballou Morse's series *The international relations of the Chinese Empire* of 1918. [Morse 1918, vol.2, map between the pages of 240 and 241]

**Fig. 2b** Map of Tientsin around 1900/1902 as reproduced in *7KHSHULRGRIVXEMHFWLRQ±* the third volume of Hosea Ballou Morse's series *The international relations of the Chinese Empire* of 1918. [Morse 1918, vol.3, map between the pages of 240 and 241]

**Fig. 2c** Map of "Tiën-Tsin" as indicated in the 1900/01 edition of *Meyers Konservationslexikon* (5th edition, vol. 21, Supplement 1901) [Private collection Michael Falser]

QHVV RI 7LDQMLQ¶V FXUUHQW FRPPRGL¿FDWLRQ IURP D more general perspective. However, the Austro-Hungarian concession *per se* was rarely mentioned in WKLVFRQWH[WIRULQVWDQFHD¿UVWPHQWLRQLQ6KDQJ Liu 1996), not to mention any relevant photographic survey on the spot.

In such a context, more on-site research is still needed. As a small selection of my own pictures (taken when I visited the site in December 2018) VKRZWKLVFRPPRGL¿FDWLRQSURFHVV UDQJHV IURPLQ style additions to reconstructions, overpowered by megalomaniac construction projects in its direct vi-FLQLW\7KHUHVWZDVFRPPRGL¿HG²QRZLQFRQFHUW with other former concessions, such as the neigh-ERXULQJ,WDOLDQRQH²LQWRZKDW,ZRXOGOLNHWRFDOO a truly 'global theme park atmosphere'. Thanks to my own comparative study of photographs of the original fabric from *c.*1911 with what I could witness myself some hundred years later, I will conclude that *Chinese heritage in the making* (after 0DDJV 6YHQVVRQ  KDV WUDQVIHUUHG 'Habsburgs going global' from an originally post-1900 Austro-Hungarian project to a post-2000 local Chinese agency.

However, it needs to be emphasised that the remarks about Tianjin's heritagisation process made towards the end of this chapter are of a preliminary, speculative nature at this point owing to limited access to contemporary (above all, Chinese) sources. Given the complexity of the current situation, they are meant to inspire further *in-situ* research rather WKDQFRPHWRDQ\¿QDOFRQFOXVLRQ

#### **3. Austria-Hungary in Tientsin (1901– 1917): a failed project in** *Habsburgs going global***?**

7KH ¿UVW R൶FLDOWUHDW\ EHWZHHQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDUian Monarchy and China dates back to 1869. At that point in time, the original Chinese city of Tientsin had already turned into an international treaty port ²ZLWKVPDOO)UHQFKDQG%ULWLVKFRQFHVVLRQVDORQJ the Hai River to the south-east of the original 'Chinese City' **(Fig. 2a**, compare with Morse's map of Tientsin after 1900 in **Fig. 2b)** )RU VRPHWKUHH GHcades, the Austrian 'intangible' contact zone with China continued to develop (see the introduction by Georg Lehner), but Tientsin had not yet appeared on her imperialist radar; however German-language dictionaries like the *Meyers Konversationslexikon* (here in its edition of 1901) could already identify GL൵HUHQWQDWLRQDOVHFWLRQVLQWKH³)RUHLJQ4XDUWHUV´ [*Fremdenviertel*] **(Fig. 2c)**.

However, it was the ambitious Count Goluchowski (1849–1921), Austria-Hungary's Minister of )RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV EHWZHHQ DQG ZKR JDYH IUHVK SROLWLFDO LPSHWXV WRZDUGV WKH )DU (DVW **(Fig. 3a)**. After China's humiliating defeat in the 6LQR-DSDQHVH:DURI±-DSDQDQG\*HUPDQ\ installed their concessions in Tientsin, the German (PSLUH EXLOW D QDYDO EDVHLQ *Tsingtau* (from 1898), WKH 5XVVLDQ DQG )UHQFK H[SDQGHG LQ &KLQD \*UHDW %ULWDLQVHWWOHGLQ+RQJ.RQJDQG,WDO\ODXQFKHGDQ XQVXFFHVVIXO H[SORUDWRU\ PLVVLRQ LQ )HEUXDU\± 0DUFK \$XVWULD+XQJDU\ ZLWK LWV QHZ %HLjing-based delegate and plenipotentiary minister, 0RULW] %DURQ &]LNDQQ YRQ :DKOERUQ ± **(Fig. 3b)**, equally felt under pressure to further investigate potential trading posts along the Chinese coast (compare with Lehner in his introduction).

In this context, the following anonymous frontpage article of 11 March 1899 in Austria's most important newspaper, *Neue Freie Presse* >1HZ )UHH Press], which openly advocated *Habsburgs going global*WRZDUGV(DVW\$VLDPD\LWVHOIKDYHEHHQDVHcret Goluchowski/Czikann initiative and a perfect surprise for the Viennese authorities:

A remarkable rumour is circulating in diplomatic circles. […] Austria-Hungary might join other (XURSHDQ SRZHUVWR FODLP D VKDUH RIWKH&KLQHVH coastline under similar conditions […] we have no doubt that the thought that Austria-Hungary could join the other powers and, while all the others seize the opportunity, also claim a share of the Chinese spoils, is consistent with Austrian feeling […] *\$XVWULD LQ &KLQD 2QO\ DW ¿UVW JODQFH GRHV WKLV synthesis sound — as we may call it — exotic.* […] 6XUSOXV (XURSHDQ HQHUJ\ LV ORQJLQJ LPSHUDWLYHO\ for exploitation, and it is irresistibly attracted by the unlimited perspective opening up on the shores RIWKH(DVW\$VLDVHDVLQWRWKHXQH[SORUHGH[SDQVHV RIWKH&KLQHVHHPSLUH>«@2XU2OG(XURSHKDVEHcome too cramped, and the new journey of the Ar-JRQDXWV WRZDUGV WKH \*ROGHQ )OHHFH RI HFRQRPLF wealth is pointing towards fairy-tale-ish faraway ODQGV:K\VKRXOG\$XVWULDQRWWDNHSDUWLQVXFKDQ HQGHDYRXU":K\VKRXOGLWVWDQGDSDUWZKLOHDOOWKH RWKHUV DUH KHOSLQJ WKHPVHOYHV" >«@ %RVQLD DQG +HU]HJRYLQD KDYH SURYLGHG VX൶FLHQW SURRI WKDW ZH GR QRWODJ EHKLQGLQWKHDUW RIFRORQLVLQJ:H do not need to stick to our native soil in resigned VHOIVX൶FLHQF\ ZKHQ DW D PRPHQW RI D YHULWDEOH PDVVPLJUDWLRQDFURVVWKHRFHDQVDOO(XURSHDQQDtions are setting out to create an immense market

**Figs. 3a,b** 7KHSUHVXPHGLQÀXHQWLDODFWRUVEHKLQG\$XVWULD+XQJDU\¶V¿QDOGHFLVLRQWRRFFXS\DFRQFHVVLRQDUHDLQ7LHQWVLQLQ \$JHQRU0DULD\$GDP&RXQW\*ROXFKRZVNL±\$XVWULD+XQJDU\¶V0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVEHWZHHQDQGOHIW and Austria-Hungary's Beijing-based delegate and plenipotentiary minister, Moritz Baron Czikann von Wahlborn (1847–1909). [Austrian National Library; Wikimedia Commons]

for their productions and in this way mightily promote their economic prosperity. […] *Austria, too, intends to occupy a colonial territory along the Chinese coast.* […] stemming from a desire to HTXDOO\EHQH¿WIURPWKH)RXQWDLQRI<RXWKRIHFRnomic regeneration, which gives the Old World its PRGHUQLPSULQW1RSUHVHQWVWDWHVKDOOVWL൵HQLQWR VOXJJLVKVHOIVX൶FLHQF\DQGQR[LRXVLVRODWLRQ*The world has become tremendously large and a share of it lays there for all who desire it. We need a window that opens up a view towards this new world. Longing for the far-away, competition for the market of modern life, expanding one's horizon … these are the new solutions.* [My emphases]

 [*Neue Freie Presse*, Morgenblatt No. 12411, 11 March 1899, cover page]

However, besides this wishful thinking, incidents were escalating (see the introduction by Georg Leh-QHU\$ORFDODWWDFNDJDLQVW&DWKROLF)DWKHU:LO¿QJHU in April 1900 resulted in a critical political situation. The installation of a small protective naval base at the mouth of the Hai River close to Tientsin followed, with some thirty Austrian marines assigned to it. Then a few hundred soldiers of the Dual Monarchy participated in punitive action against the socalled Boxer Uprising. In July 1900, the Expeditionary Forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance recaptured Tientsin,11 but in an internal report (dated 31 October 1900) Arthur von Rosthorn, councillor of the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing since 1895, warned about the potential risks incurred by an Austro-Hungarian concession project in the city (Lehner 1995, 427).

7KH XQHTXDO SHDFH WUHDW\ ZDV QHJRWLDWHG LQ DQG³WKH¿QDOSURWRFROZDVVLJQHGRQ6HSWHPber 7th HOHYHQPRQWKVDIWHUWKH¿UVW IRUPXODtion of the allied demands", as Hosea Morse, in his series *The International Relations of the Chinese Empire* (volume three: *The Period of Subjection ±*), documented in great detail in "Chapter

 <sup>11</sup> In this context, the *Modern Family Journal — Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung*, in its issue 34 (Oct. 1900) reported on "Our troops in China" (p. 623) and depicted battle scenes from Beijing as well as the Austrian army and its soldiers in a hospital in Tientsin.

XII — The diplomatic settlement".12 Moritz Czikann signed the contract on behalf of Austria-Hungary. As Morse put it, "the game of 'grab' thus begun was continued by the other powers" (Morse 1918, vol. III, 325):13 Germany (in 1899) and Italy (in 1901) joined Great Britain, France, the USA (already present since 1860–61 after the Treaty of Tientsin of 1858), Japan, and Russia (since 1898/1900) in the family of Concession Powers. Belgium followed suit in 1902. All these countries progressively installed their concessions in far less pre-populated areas and joined in the international *Tientsin Provisional Government* (T.P.G., *Dutong yamen* in Chinese). However, with no operational base on the spot Aus-WULD+XQJDU\FRXOGQRWDGHTXDWHO\SDUWLFLSDWHLQWKH game until 1901.

#### **3.1. From territorial occupation to 'uneven' FRQWUDFWDQGD¿UVWFRQWDFW]RQH±**

On 7 February 1901 Czikann nervously reported EDFNWRWKH9LHQQDEDVHG0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV that some of the other powers planned to further expand their concessions.

Now that the Italian legation has occupied some land in Tientsin and only very few spots suitable for settlement are left over, and in the event that the Imperial and Royal Government [*die k.u.k. Regierung*] should intend to establish an Austro-Hungarian Settlement in Tientsin, I ask for immediate permission to occupy on behalf of Austria-Hungary a rather suitable plot of land on the left bank of the Peiho, which includes some 500 metres of riverside, borders the Italian occupied land, and lies near the railway station *vis-à-vis* the Chinese City and the new Japanese settlement. It is feared that any delay would lead to an occupation by Japan. Russia and other powers have paid the Chinese government around 75 taels per Mou for their settlements, and it can be expected that we would have to satisfy similar conditions as well.14

Only two days later, on 9 February 1901 a message IURP9LHQQD¿QDOO\JUDQWHG³WKHDXWKRULVDWLRQWRRFcupy land under the condition that this would happen in a peaceful way, without any provocation or acute complications [and that] the transfer fee for the QHZDUHDZRXOG EHFRXQWHUEDODQFHGZLWKWKHOLTXLdation of our compensation claims"15 ÀRZLQJ IURP the military campaign against the Boxers. Armed ZLWK WKLV µR൶FLDO JRDKHDG¶ WKH RFFXSDWLRQ µWRRN place' on 11 February (compare with Fig. 16 in the introduction by Georg Lehner), as Czikann reported to Goluchowski:

In compliance with the telegraphed directive of 9th of the month, Vice-Consul Silvestri, Lieutenant Commander [*/LQLHQVFKLৼVOLHXWHQDQW* Oskar] Gas-VHQPD\HU DQG &KLHI 2൶FHU RI WKH \*HQHUDO 6WD൵ [*Hauptmann des Generalstabs*] Wojcik were sent to Tientsin to occupy the territory concerned, whose boundaries had been drawn up in the attached report by the k.u.k. [*Ettappenkommandant*] Commander. The aforesaid gentlemen reached Tientsin in the late afternoon of the 11th of the month and approached, shortly after arrival and at the onset of darkness, the land concerned in order to mark out its boundaries as fast and discreetly as SRVVLEOHZLWKWKHDLGRIÀDJVDQGVLJQSRVWVEHDULQJ WKH ZULWWHQWH[W ³2FFXSp SDUOD GpOpJDWLRQ G¶\$X-WULFKH+RQJULHj3pNLQ´2QWKHYHU\VDPHGD\DV WKHVXFFHVVIXORFFXSDWLRQDKHUHE\DWWDFKHGQRWL¿ cation, which I had prepared and which was signed by [*/LQLHQVFKLৼV&DSLWlQ*] Captain Ritter Bless von Sambuchi, was delivered to all the foreign consuls in Tientsin, in order to anticipate all eventual further protests of another power.16

 <sup>12</sup> +HFRQWLQXHGLQWKHVXEFKDSWHU³6LJQDWXUHRIWKH¿QDOSURWRFRO´³7KHSURWRFROZDVVLJQHGE\WKHSOHQLSRWHQWLDULHVRI&KLQD<LN-ZDQJ3ULQFHRIWKH¿UVWUDQNRI&KLQDDQGHDUO/L+XQJFKDQJDQGE\WKHSOHQLSRWHQWLDULHVRIWKHIRUHLJQSRZHUVDVIROORZV Germany: A. Mumm von Schwartzenstein; Austria-Hungary: M. Czikann von Wahlborn; Belgium: M. Joostens; Spain: B.J. de &RORJDQGR\HQ8QLWHG6WDWHVRI\$PHULFD::5RFNKLOO)UDQFH3DXO%HDX\*UHDW%ULWDLQ6LU(UQHVW6DWRZ,WDO\0DUTXLV Salvago Raggi; Japan: Jutaro Komura; Netherlands: F.M. Knobel; Russia: M. de Giers" (Morse 1918, vol. 3, 347). 13 However, Morse listed another chronology: Great Britain, France and the United States of America in 1861, Germany in 1895, Ja-

pan, Russia and Belgium in 1896, and Austria-Hungary with Italy in 1900 (Morse 1918, vol. 3, 326). 14 ++6W\$3\$3HNLQJ%HULFKWH&]LNDQQ)HEUXDU\TXRWHGLQ-y]VD

 <sup>15</sup> ++6W\$3\$;;,;WHOHJUDPRI)HEUXDU\TXRWHGLQ+|UWOHU,DQG/HKQHU

 <sup>16</sup> HHStA MdÄ AR F8 (241), Czikann to Goluchowski, Beijing 14 January 1901. Shortly after, in his "Noticen über die Sicherstellung eines Settlements in Tientsin" [Notes about the seizure of a settlement in Tientsin] of 18 February 1901, Czikann reported EDFNWRWKH\$XVWULDQDQG+XQJDULDQSULPHPLQLVWHUV(UQHVWYRQ.RHUEHUDQG.iOPiQ6]pOOUHVSHFWLYHO\,QKLVUHSRUWRI0DUFK 1901, Czikann mentioned the long diplomatic "silence" of Japan and the US-American "solemn protest".

**Fig. 4a** +DQGGUDZQPDSRI³7KHIRUHLJQVHWWOHPHQWVLQ7LHQWVLQ´LQGLFDWLQJWKH³\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ´IRUWKH¿UVWWLPH VLJQHGE\³&KLHI2൶FHU>*Hauptmann*] Wojcik" (*c.*1901) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

#### <sup>X</sup> **7KH¿UVWPDSVDQGWKHLUFDUWRJUDSKLF discourses**

What Czikann mentioned in this report may count as WKH¿UVWPDSHYHUSURGXFHGE\DQ\$XVWULDQDXWKRUWR indicate the "Austro-Hungarian Settlement". The hand-drawn sketch was called "The foreign settle-PHQWV LQ 7LHQWVLQ´ DQG VLJQHG E\ ³&KLHI 2൶FHU [*Hauptmann*@ :RMFLN´ :KLOH LW GL൵HUHQWLDWHG EHtween the "boundaries of the areas with constructed KRXVHV´ DQG WKH ³DUWL¿FLDO ERXQGDULHV RI WKH VHWWOHments" **(Fig. 4a)** WKH ¿UVW DSSUR[LPDWH GLPHQVLRQV of Austria-Hungary's new possession (drawn with a red pencil) were indicated: "c.800 m" to the south towards the Italian concession, "1200 m" along the Hai River to the west, a zigzag line of "390 m, 180 m and 320 m" towards the north and north-east DQG¿QDOO\³P´WRZDUGVWKHHDVWDORQJWKHDUWL- ¿FLDO OLQH RI WKH &KLQHVH 5DLOZD\ WUDFNV 7KLV HTXDOOHGDQRYHUDOOVXUIDFHRIMXVWVTXDUHNLORmetre (or 1012 Chinese *mu*) with, as roughly calculated later, an approximate population of some 35– 40,000 Chinese inhabitants.

This information was then reused, only one year later, by the ship-of-the line lieutenant Theodor Ritter von Winterhalder, 'k.u.k.' (which stood for 'imperial and royal' in Austria-Hungary) for his book *Kämpfe in China. Eine Darstellung der Wirren und* 

**Fig. 4b** Map of Tientsin, published in *Kämpfe in China* [Clashes in China], by Theodor Winterhalder, 1902, indicating the "New boundaries of the foreign settlements". [Winterhalder 1902, 539]

*der Betheiligung von Österreich-Ungarns Seemacht DQ GHUHQ 1LHGHUZHUIXQJ LQ GHQ -DKUHQ ±* [Clashes in China. A description of disturbances and of the participation of Austria-Hungary's sea power in their defeat in the years of 1900–1901] (Winterhalder 1902, 132, 538–70). What Winterhalder himself had previously mapped out as "Chinesenstadt" [Chinese City] around 1900 (see Fig. 15 in the introduction by Georg Lehner) was now, a few months later, updated by simply transcribing the aforemen-WLRQHG RULJLQDO PDS LQWR DQ R൶FLDO SULQW YHUVLRQ while also depicting some of the actors of the occupation itself **(Figs. 4b,c)**.

However, if we look closer at the occupied area, we can see that the slot was to be far from an easy one for Austro-Hungarians to develop. A section of the depiction of Tientsin by the Chinese Feng Qihuang (1899),17 with its 'typical late-Qing' imagi-

 <sup>17</sup> The complete map is accessible through the online map section of the US Library of Congress, under https://www.loc.gov/item/ gm71005155/ (retrieved 4 July 2020).

**Fig. 4c** Some of the Austrian actors of the occupation of new concession area in Tientsin: Vice-Consul Silvestri and Lieutenant \*DVVHQPD\HUQH[WWR\$WWDFKp+R\RV&DSWDLQ6DPEXFKLDQGRWKHUV>:LQWHUKDOGHU@

QDU\ DHULDO PDS SHUVSHFWLYH FI<HH  FOHDUO\ shows **(Figs. 5a/5c)** that the future core of the Austro-Hungarian concession along the riverside di-UHFWO\ HDVW RI WKH LQGLFDWHG ³'RQJ IXTLDR´ %ULGJH [meaning "Eastern Pontoon Bridge", compare our glossary] was occupied by long rows of small buildings (those towards the south may have belonged to the Chinese salt administration). Just east of the bridge, Chinese buildings were depicted, such as the ³6DQTX´ \$FDGHP\ VOLJKWO\ WR WKH VRXWK DQG WKH "Sanguan" (probably Daoist) temple (right opposite to the bridge) — where the future main street would be. Towards the north, the "Shanxi huiguan" (House of the Shanxi trading guild) was standing.18

When Noah Fields Drake was hired as a governmental land surveyor, the map that was produced for WKH¿UVWHGLWLRQRIKLVVPDOOERRNOHW*Map and short description of Tientsin*ZDV DWRWDOO\ GL൵HUHQW D൵DLU'UDNHFI6LQJDUDYpORX± A comparison of the two visual representations demonstrates that the Chinese and Western colonial 'cartographic discourses' (after J.B. Harley) pro-GXFHGYHU\GL൵HUHQWWHUULWRULDOLQVWLWXWLRQDODQGVRcial claims over one and the same urban space: Tientsin around 1900. For one side (the Chinese), it was a living social entity, whereas for the other side it constituted a calculable, measured space for future urban planning. In the Drake map of 1900 **(Figs. 5b/5d)**, the same section indicated only a dense street pattern over *Ho Tung* (often referred to as 'Chinese Town'). It was reached over the "Tung-puch'iao" from the west by crossing the Hai River,

 <sup>18</sup> I thank the co-author of this book, Georg Lehner, for his help with deciphering some of the Chinese indications on the map.

**Figs. 5a,b** 7ZRGL൵HUHQWFDUWRJUDSKLFGLVFRXUVHVRYHURQHDQGWKHVDPHFLW\7LHQWVLQDERYH³&RPSOHWHPDSRIWKHFRPPXQLW\ self-defence system of the walled city of Tianjin and its environs" (originally in Chinese), attributed to Feng Qihuang and dated "Guangxu 25 nian" (1899); below, "Map of Tientsin, prepared for the Tientsin Provisional Government, from surveys made by N. F. Drake, 1900". [Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, Washington D.C., USA]

**Figs. 5c,d** Left: Section of the future Austro-Hungarian concession, as indicated on Feng Qihuang's map of 1899; right: The same section, indicated as "Ho Tung" in Drake's Tientsin map of 1900. [Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, Washington D.C., USA; Noah Fields Drake: Map and short description of Tientsin 1900, map (selection)]

ZKLFK KDG MXVW EHHQ FRQQHFWHG WR WKH ROG DUWL¿FLDO Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal to the north. On the other side of a pontoon bridge (see Fig. 5b), the buildings of a "College" and a "Salt Inspectors Of- ¿FH´ DORQJ WKH ULYHUVLGH19 a few other communal sites to the north, and a patchwork of water surfaces stretching east were indicated.

Whereas the cartographic language of the West was measured and scaled, based on the strictly planar representation of the 'map', the Chinese notion involved a form of religious and social topography <HH  WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW IHDWXUHV DQG VWUXFtures were represented through a mix of isometric and/or side-elevation perspectives. In order to under-VWDQGWKHVH JUHDW GL൵HUHQFHVZH QHHGWR JR IXUWKHU back, in our case into the mid-nineteenth century. One Chinese source, *Jinmen baojia tushuo* [Explanation of the Tientsin/*Tianjin baojia* plan], dated 1846, is useful here: it shows the densely built-up area on the east bank of the Hai River just before any direct Western impact (see the introduction by Georg Lehner, in particular Illustrations 6a,b: maps of the British Admiralty of 1863), and *de facto* half a century before the same spot would be occupied by the Austro-Hungarian regime.

7KH¿UVWµPDS¶**(Fig. 6a)** — with a 'correct' north orientation from a Western point of view — shows the eastern part of the walled city (with the "Dong-PHQ´ LH (DVW \*DWH DQG WKH FRQÀXHQFH RI WKH \*UDQG &DQDO DQG WKH %DL 5LYHU HTXDOO\ FDOOHG 3HL River, see our attached Glossary). As regards the suburbs east of the river, the map shows various VWUXFWXUHV MXVW ZHVW RI WKH ³'RQJ IXTLDR´ >(DVWHUQ 3RQWRRQ %ULGJH@ OLHV WKH ³7LDQMLQ IHQVL´ >2൶FH RI the Circuit Intendant of Tientsin]. Just east of the EULGJHWRWKH VRXWKZH FDQ VHHWKH ³<DQJXDQWLQJ´

<sup>19</sup> 2QWKHVHSDUDWHOHJHQGVRI³\*RYHUQPHQW&LYLO3ODFHV´GLG'UDNHLQGLFDWHQXPEHUDV³<HQ.XDQ6DOW,QVSHFWRUV2൶FH´DQG under "Educational Institutions" number 59 as "San-chu Shuyuan/Hsiu-tsai College".

**Figs. 6a,b** Two maps in the Chinese source *Jinmen baojia tushuo* [Explanation of the Tientsin/Tianjin baojia plan], dated 1846, indicating the densely built-up area on the east bank of the Baihe/Haihe [River]. The future site of the Austro-Hungarian concession is on the right side, compare the location of the salt heaps on both maps. [Harvard University, Widener Library]

[Building of the Salt Administration], facing the bridge the "Sanguan miao" (most probably a Daoist temple), and to the north the "Shanxi huiguan" [House of the Shanxi trading guild]. Further east on the plan, the "Guandi miao" [Temple of the War God Guandi] is depicted. The second 'map' **(Fig. 6b)** depicts roughly the same section, but from another viewpoint (the original map is turned to the right). The same major sites are depicted again (now with a more precise indication of the streets, such as the much-named Chinese main street, called *Xinglong jie,* or *Hsin-Lung-Dschie* in later Austro-Hungarian concession maps), but from a 'Western' standpoint. The representations of one and the same area are worlds apart.

Drake's maps were also instantly appropriated for the Austrian project itself. When his "Map of the foreign settlements — Tientsin" was updated and re-published in 1902, Drake indicated the "proposed Austro-Hungarian and Italian Concessions" on the D൵HFWHGWHUULWRULHVKRZHYHUKLVSUHYLRXVORFDO&KLnese indications had now been deleted!) **(Fig. 7)** and the same delimitations were incorporated (tran-VFULEHG LQWR WKH ¿UVW \$XVWULDQ \*HUPDQODQJXDJH FDUWRJUDSKLFH൵RUWV**(Figs. 8a,b)**.

However, cartography always went hand in hand with political action. As early as April 1901, the *k.u.k. Escadre Kommandant Contre-Admiral* in East Asia, and an important Austrian player during the Boxer Uprising, Rudolf Count Montecuccoli, addressed a report to the Navy Department at the Imperial War Ministry in Vienna together with "his cro-TXLV´VNHWFKPDSRIWKH³\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ6HWWOHment in Tientsin"20 **(Fig. 9)**.

 <sup>20</sup> Bericht Montecuccoli, K.u.K. Escadre-Commando in Ostasien an das K.u.K. Reichs-Kriegs-Ministerium "Marine-Sektion", Wien (Taku-Rhede, am 20. April 1901), see HHStA P.A. XXIX 15, China, Liasse Ia (1901 I-V).

**Fig. 7** "Map of Tientsin" (detail), as reproduced in Drake's updated publication of 1902 [Drake 1902, map (detail), reproduction from Austrian State Archive, Vienna]

**Figs. 8a,b** Two early Austrian (German-language) maps (published in 1901 and 1902) about the "Austro-Hungarian concession", drawn on the basis of Drake's larger maps of Tientsin (1900 and 1902, see above) [Austrian State Archives]

**Fig. 9** Sketch map in an internal report of 20 April 1901 by Count Montecuccoli, indicating the section of the "Austro-Hungarian Concession" [*Öster.-ung. Settlement in Tientsin*]. [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

While the overall street grid and the Chinese locations indicated certainly referred to the aforementioned maps by Noah Fields Drake,21 new important information was added: to the south-west, he indicated the spot of the "salt heaps", while in the centre, the location of the "German military camp" [*Deutsches Feldlager*] was shaded in grey; this was instantly handed over to the Austrian navy. Of JUHDWHU UHOHYDQFH IRUWKH FRPLQJ \HDUV DQG GL൶FXOW discussions with the local authorities, the map showed the large surfaces occupied by "individual graves and temples" (in blue) and "graves" (in red) of the local Chinese population.

The concession contract was negotiated from late 1901 onwards, but the Chinese side was in a weak position given that the whole city was occupied and *de facto* administered by foreign troops at that point in time. Since 4 August 1903, the Austro-Hungarian delegation was headed by the newly appointed Consul for Tientsin, Dr. Carl (or Karl) Bernauer, who had already started to equip 'his' consular section with all the administrative and representative devices of local governance even before a permanent consulate building had even been planned. The stamps and seals were designed to match those of the Austro-Hungarian delegation in Beijing (**Figs. 10a-c**).22

On the other side stood Tientsin's Customs *Daotai*, Tang Shaoyi (other sources use the name ³7¶RQJ6KDR,´ZKRZDVDSSRLQWHGDVDQHJRWLDWLQJ

**Figs. 10a-c** Stamps and seals of the Austro-Hungarian consulate in Tientsin and the delegation in Beijing [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Fig. 11** Photographs of the giant salt heaps along the Hai River, southern section of the Austro-Hungarian concession around 1902, today stored in the Austrian War Archives, Photographic Collection, and published in Winterhalder's *Kämpfe in China* (1902, 39) [Austrian State Archives, Department of *Kriegsarchiv*]

 <sup>21</sup> However, Montecuccoli wrongly indicated (to the west of the settlement) the "Pei River", which *de facto* changed its name into ³+DL5LYHU´DIWHULWVFRQÀXHQFHZLWKWKH,PSHULDO&DQDOVHHJORVVDU\DWWKHHQGRIWKLVERRN

 <sup>22</sup> These devices for the representation of a European, imperial and Catholic power such as Austro-Hungary, included, as Bernauer LQGLFDWHGLQVHYHUDOUHSRUWVLQDVHWRI\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQPHUFKDQWÀDJVR൶FLDOVHDOVDGPLQLVWUDWLYHWRROV>*Amtsbehelfe*], a FUXFL¿[DQGDSRUWUDLWRIWKH\$XVWULDQ(PSHURU)UDQFLV-RVHSKDVZHOODVDIXOOVHWRIWKH,PSHULDO/DZ\*D]HWWH>*Reichsgesetzblatt*@++6W\$\$5-DQXDU\DQG-XO\

**Figs. 12a-c** 2൶FLDOEDQQHUDQQRXQFLQJWKHQHZ\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQSRVVHVVLRQWKHFRQFHVVLRQRI7LHQWVLQLQFOXGLQJDFORVHXSRIWKH stamp (Supplement to an internal Austrian report of 8 August 1902). Please note the word 'Oben' (meaning 'above' or 'top') in red, added later, as an instruction for the correct handling and reading of the banner by non-Chinese-language speakers; close-up detail of the banner inscribed with "K.u.K. Oesterr.Ung. Consulat Tientien" [sic; compare with the cover illustration of this present book] and the "Tientsin Provisional Government". [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

partner by the powerful General Governor of the =KLOL SURYLQFH <XDQ 6KLNDL 3UREOHPV LQFOXGHG DQ R൶FLDO EXW XQVXFFHVVIXO SHWLWLRQ E\ORFDOLQKDELWants to the Chinese City Administration as regards an exchange of territory, the (weak) guarantee of their continued ownership rights on occupied land in relation to newly introduced taxation and rather harsh expropriation rules (see below), compensation for the relocation of "6700 graves" (as mentioned by Bernauer in an interim report23), and the handling of six enormous salt heaps along the riverbanks in the \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQDQG ,WDOLDQSRVVHVVLRQV\$XQLTXH source, a photograph depicting these giant salt heaps

 <sup>23</sup> %HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ-XQH³&RQFHUQLQJWKHFRPSOHWLRQRIDGUDIWFRQWUDFWIRUWKHDFTXLsition of the Austro-Hungarian concession", see HHStA MdÄ AR 8/241 (19).

along the Hai River, could be tracked down in the Austrian War Archives in Vienna (**Fig. 11**).

In a letter dated 8 August 1902 Bernauer (he was just appointed Vice Consul on 4 August of the same year) reported back to Count Goluchowski that, DORQJ ZLWK WKH \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ PHUFKDQW ÀDJ DW the bridge connecting the concession to the "Chinese FLW\´DQR൶FLDODQQRXQFHPHQW>*Kundmachung*] had been put up in Chinese-language banners all over the area. One banner, attached to the Bernauer report, has survived until today in the Austrian State Ar-FKLYHV DQG LV VKRZQ KHUH IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH **(Fig. 12a)**. It proclaimed "that the Austro-Hungarian Consul in Tientsin had taken over the administration of the Austro-Hungarian Concession in Tientsin from the *Tutung Yamen*, seat of the provisional govern-PHQWRQWKH¿UVWGD\RIWKHth Chinese month (4th of August)". As Bernauer further explained in his report, this would be the right moment "to expropriate the current owners, take over the land with its houses, hand it over to potential purchasers [*Kauflustigen*] [and] found a *Municipalität* for our concession."24 As an ironic detail, it shall be noted that, next to the stamp of the "Tientsin Provisional Government — Chief of Police" **(Fig. 12c)**WKH R൶FLDO Austrian stamp on the banner, indicating "K.u.K. Oesterr.Ung. Consulat Tientien", misspelt the city's name, which was commonly spelt "Tientsin" at that time (**Fig. 12b**).

#### <sup>X</sup> **The Treaty of 1902**

As a curious matter of fact, the original *Treaty concerning the transfer of the settlement of \$XVWULD+XQJDU\ LQ 7LHQWVLQ GUDIWHG RQ -XQH DQG LVVXHG RQ 'HFHPEHU*  has apparently been lost in the Austrian State Archives, but Günter Hörtler was able to locate a copy belonging WR WKH &KLQHVH 0LQLVWU\ RI )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV LQ WKH Aca demia Sinica Archive (Taiwan) during research for his 1984 PhD thesis.25 The borderline was described in §1 of the contract as running between the rivers to the west and north, the Italian concession to the south and the (yet to be exactly delimited) railway tracks to the east (compare with Figs. 8a,b, 9). 7KHD൵HFWHGDUHDZDVDVH[SODLQHGLQJUDQWHGWR Austria-Hungary for an "unlimited time without remuneration" and was to be marked out by permanent "border stones". The ownership of land was granted to local inhabitants in §3 as long as "they could prove their possession by means of legal documents". In spite of this, Austria-Hungary would ³KDYHWKHULJKWWRDFTXLUHODQGLILWGHHPHGLWQHFHVsary in the interest of the state, for the development DQGÀRXULVKLQJRIWKHVHWWOHPHQWRUIRUVDQLWDU\UHDsons." As for §§ 4 to 13, they dealt with the remaining salt heaps, an impending proclamation of the Austro-Hungarian consulate as regards the status of undeclared properties, the rights for Chinese to ac-TXLUHODQGDFFRUGLQJWRHVWDEOLVKHGUXOHVWKHWUDQVORcation of private and public graves (and its remuneration), taxation, telegraph and telephone lines and, ¿QDOO\WKHR൶FLDOSURFODPDWLRQRIWKHFRQWUDFWLWVHOI by the Governor General, and the German and Chinese copies to be signed and stamped. However, WKH &KLQHVH VLGH VORZHG GRZQ WKH ¿QDO UDWL¿FDWLRQ process as a result of internal strategic calculations.

Bernauer had meanwhile summed up his observations about the Austro-Hungarian concession pro-MHFW LQ D GRFXPHQW ¿UVW HQWLWOHG ³9LFH&RQVXO %HUnauer to Count Goluchowski" and dated "Tientsin, -DQXDU\ ´ ² DQ R൶FLDO WHQSDJH UHSRUW WR WKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQD %HUQDXHU 1903a). This was then turned into a newspaper story called *Unser Settlement in Tientsin* [Our settlement in Tientsin]. First printed in the Viennese newspaper *Fremdenblatt*, the detailed description was, in a curious instance of global back-translation from one periphery (Habsburgs' new concession in the 'Far East') to the other (Austro-Hungary's Galician crownland of the *Bokowina*), then published in the *Czernowitzer Tagblatt* on 25, 27 and 28 March (Bernauer 1903b):26GLYHUJLQJVOLJKWO\IURPWKH¿UVWFDO-FXODWLRQV VHH DERYH WKH D൵HFWHG DUHD ZRXOG QRZ

<sup>24</sup> \$V³ERUGHUOLQHVRIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ&RQFHVVLRQ>KHGH¿QHG@³WKH*Paiho* to the north, the *Peiho* in the west, the *Shi-dse-dji* Street to the north-east, the rail tracks to the east, and the Italian concession to the south-east", in: HHStA MdÄ AR 8/241 (9),

Vice-Consul Dr. Bernauer an Ministerium des Äußeren (Tientsin, 8 August 1902). 25 )RUWKH³9HUWUDJEHWUH൵HQGGLH\$EWUHWXQJHLQHU1LHGHUODVVXQJDQgVWHUUHLFK8QJDUQLQ7LHQWVLQ´>*Treaty concerning the transfer of the settlement to Austria-Hungary in Tientsin*]*,* issued 27 December 1902 ("referring to the date of the 28th day of the 11th months of the 28th year, see in Hörtler 1984, I:42–45. 26 Bernauer's report in the *Czernowitzer Tagblatt* covered the following issues: "Houses and streets", "Administration of the settle-

ment", "Taxes in Tientsin", "Budget for the settlement", "Policing of the settlement", "The marine detachment", "The redesign [*Neugestaltung*] of the settlement", "The construction company for the graveyards and streetscapes" and "Development of the administration".

**Figs. 13a,b** 2൶FLDO&KLQHVHSURFODPDWLRQRIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQE\<XDQ6KLNDLRQ0DUFKIXOOYHUVLRQDQG detail bearing the Austro-Hungarian police stamp "Osterr.Ungar. Niederlassung Polizei") [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

total "722,528 m2 HTXDOOLQJ0RZ´RQH*Mow* or *Mou*HTXDOOLQJP<sup>2</sup> ), while the eastern section (with its disputed border with the railway tracks) still needed to be mapped out precisely. His description of the existing building stock and limited development potential was hardly encouraging: "Almost the entire area is [already] built up with houses, which are arranged on often very narrow and irregular streets and alleys (both two main thoroughfares with a maximum width of 3 m, all side-street even smaller). Unbuilt surfaces lie under water during most of the year and can therefore only be built on if WKHVRLOZHUHWREH¿OOHGXS7KHVL]HRIWKHVHSORWV can be roughly estimated at 25.000 m2 (or 40 Mow),

while the existing graves may [on these plots] be about 10.000." A rough census in December 1902 had calculated "about 25–30,000 inhabitants with some 1832 houses", with "very shabby mud houses in the southern sections, better-built Chinese houses in the northern sections, and no European-built houses". Besides the marine soldiers [*Marine-Detachement*] there were only three Europeans present, while Bernauer painted a lively picture of wealthy merchants ("doing their daily business in the neighbouring 'Native City'") and otherwise busy smallscale businessmen and many shops, ranging from JURFHU\ VWRUHV ³RSLXP VKRSV´ DQG ³OLTXRU GLVWLOO eries" included) to small manufacturers (from tailors to basket weavers).

As regards the concession's emerging institutional structure, Bernauer mentioned the employment of Chinese civil servants, translators, secretaries, tax collectors and "70 policemen, called Shimbos" (see below, Figs. 17a,b) — in a sense, we may see them as cultural brokers between the local population and the foreign power — "meant to make the new administration popular", as Bernauer claimed). In the meantime, a municipal council [*Gemeinderat*] was constituted in October 1902 (it lasted until 191627) with a mixed Austrian-Chinese board, while overall policing [*Straßenpolizei*] for law, order (small street lamps in front of the houses), and hygiene (street cleaning, disposal of waste and faeces, prohibited keeping of animals on public streets, closure of cemeteries, no more burials of the dead) was overseen by the Austrian navy under Commander-Lieutenant von Hassinger.

Bernauer concluded his report with a checklist of the "most urgent ameliorations", that would indeed prove a heavy burden for the Austro-Hungarian concession for the years to come: such as "the building RI D PORQJ TXD\ DORQJWKH ULYHUEDQNWKH UHpair and/or complete replacement of the existing, ZRRGHQÀRDWLQJEULGJHDQGWKHUHPRYDORIWKHEXUial grounds and their building development" (Bernauer 1903a, 9–10). It seems that Bernauer's reports to Austria-Hungary, together with all internal corre-VSRQGHQFH YLD %HLMLQJ KDG VRPH H൵HFW \$V WKH *Wiener Zeitung* reported on 29 May 1903 from the Hungarian Telegraph-Correspondence-Bureau, the Fiume-based Credit Bank planned, together with the Hungarian General Credit Bank from Budapest, to ³RSHQ D EUDQFK R൶FH LQ WKH 6HWWOHPHQW LQ RUGHU WR mediate Hungarian trade with East Asia".28 Besides RWKHU ¿UPV WKH \*DQ] ,URQ )RXQGU\ DQG 0DFKLQH Factory (already based in the neighbouring Port Arthur) planned to expand there and sent its chief engi-QHHU\*p]D6]XNRQDPLVVLRQVHHKLVUHSRUWEHORZ cf. Szuk 1903).

<XDQ 6KLNDL¶V R൶FLDO &KLQHVH SURFODPDWLRQ RI the agreement was published on 23 March 1903. The original and published document, a large-size poster, could be located during the present research in the Austrian State Archives; it is translated and pub-OLVKHGKHUHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPH**(Figs. 13a,b)**.

In his own report to Arthur von Rosthorn at the Austro-Hungarian delegation in Beijing, dated 26 March 1903, Bernauer himself provided a German version (here in an English translation) of the proclamation:

During the Boxer Uprising of 1900, after Austro-Hungarian troops had occupied a tract of land on the left-hand bank of the Peiho and immediately mapped out its borders, the k.u.k. Austro-Hungarian delegate Baron Czikann entered into negotiations with the general director [*Generalintendant*] of the northern ports, Li, as regards the establish-PHQW RI D VHWWOHPHQW7KH XQ¿QLVKHG QHJRWLDWLRQV (owing to the death of the latter) were brought to a conclusion through our despatched delegates, the Taot'ais T'ang, Chang and Ch'ien, together with Vice-Consul Dr. Bernauer, himself being appointed by Minister Czikann, and this resulted in the arrangement of the concession regulations. To this HQGZH UHFHLYHGWKH IROORZLQJQRWL¿FDWLRQE\WKH aforementioned Taot'ai: "Because the territory concerned was occupied by the force of arms and its borders were already delimited, it was impossible to undertake a scaling down or exchange of ODQG7KHUHIRUH ZH FRXOG RQO\ PDNH WKH GL൶FXOW VLWXDWLRQRIWKHLQKDELWDQWVHDVLHUDQG¿QGVDWLVI\ ing solutions for the transfer of the salt heaps. The following points were agreed upon [Bernauer: the ± RIWKH FRQWUDFWZHUH TXRWHG@\$GGLWLRQally a map was drawn with this agreement." 2Q WKH EDVLV RI WKH QRWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH DIRUHPHQ-

tioned Taot'ai, we deem the arranged agreement satisfactory and already reported back to the *Waiwupu* >0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV@ We publish this proclamation so that all inhabitants of the settlement will be informed. In future, all inhabitants of the Austro-Hungarian concession must follow

 <sup>27</sup> In a rare note the *Gemeinderäte* of 1916 were named in an internal report: H. Accurti, F. Bauer, S. Eichner, S. Scheyer, Li-Ko- &KDQJ/L:HQ+VL6XQ&KHQ/LDQJXQG\*ML<1DQ,Q++6W\$\*HV\$3HNLQJ6HWWOHPHQW

 <sup>28</sup> Wiener Zeitung, No. 122 (29 May 1903), 12.

**Fig. 14a** A topographical survey map (plan and section) of the Austro-Hungarian concession (*c*.1903) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Fig. 14b** \$VXUYH\PDSRIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQZKHUH&KLQHVHSXEOLFVTXDUHVDQGWHPSOHVDUHLQGLFDWHG [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Fig. 14c** A lottery ticket issued by "The Tientsin Hotung Lottery", which was "supervised by the Austro-Hungarian Consulate" (January 1903) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

its regulations. Their obedience is commanded, it is warned against any infringement.

<XDQ6KLNDL¶VPHPRUDQGXPIRUWKHFRQFHVVLRQFRQtracts for Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Japan, addressed to the Chinese throne in Beijing, only received imperial approval on 26 July 1903 (Hörtler 1984, I:41).

At this point, Austria-Hungary's endeavour in &KLQDKDGJDLQHGD¿QDOOHJDOVWDWXVEXWWKH&KLQHVH parties to the agreement had all reasons to be suspicious, given that the Austrian land developers were well under way: two maps produced in the same \HDUFRXOGEHORFDWHGIRUWKLVVWXG\,QWKH¿UVWPDS (most probably drawn by the "local engineer K. Kors ten"29 by transcribing the general street-grid data from the Drake maps of 1900/1902, see Figs. 5d, 7) a horizontal cross-section of the whole territory [*Verlauf des Nivellments*] was added, running from the river to the west to the neighbouring railway station to the east, and already indicated "36 border stones" to physically codify the property rights of the concession against the outside world **(Fig. 14a)**. Towards the concession's interior, the creation of a cadastre about actual real-estate conditions was initiated, existing mechanisms to expropriate local inhabitants in the other (French, British, Russian, Italian, German and Japanese) concessions were compared and discussed, and a "list of public buildings in the Austro-Hungarian concession"30 (with twelve entries, ranging from diverse temples to the "Salt Commissionary site") was incorporated into a second map **(Fig. 14b)**.

Some months later in 1904, Bernauer reported on "lengthy negotiations with the Chinese local authorities concerned" about the "established sums for the expropriation of Chinese land and houses" (with a GL൵HUHQWLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ PRUH H[SHQVLYH ³EULFN houses", medium-priced "cement houses", and cheap "mud houses", the "compensation of Chinese IDPLOLHV DIWHU UHORFDWLRQ´ DQG WKH ¿UVW DSSOLFDWLRQ of this procedure to 'make space' for the planned consulate complex around 1904/5 (see below).31

To conclude this sub-chapter about the developing 'Sino-Chinese contact zone' in the Austro-Hungarian concession, we would like to mention a curious document, as an archival source, that was added without any further comment to the correspondence material of the consulate: a "lottery" that took place LQ-DQXDU\³XQGHUWKHVXSHUYLVLRQRIDQR൶FHU delegated by the Consulate" **(Fig. 14c)**. 32

 <sup>29</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 104 (Settlement), Bernauer, Tientsin 21 December 1903, reporting to the Beijing Delegation about Korsten's ¿UVWSURSRVDOVWRGHYHORSWKHVHWWOHPHQWDQGWKHVWXG\RIRWKHUFRQFHVVLRQV¶H[SURSULDWLRQVWUDWHJLHV

 <sup>30</sup> HHStA F63/1 (28), Beilage 2a ad No. XXXI 1903.

 <sup>31</sup> ++6W\$)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV9LHQQDVLJQHG7LHQWVLQ0D\

 <sup>32</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 103 (Settlement), Tientsin 12 January 1903.

#### <sup>X</sup> **Press reactions and travel reports**

\*LYHQ WKDW XQWLO DOO WKHVH TXDVLFRORQLDO DQG partly violent processes involving 'uneven' contracts, expropriation strategies, and established administration and policing structures happened 'under cover' to the largest extent, it is unsurprising that visible and tangible information about the Austro-Hungarian concession was rather scarce. The interested public back in the motherland had to content itself with limited photographic press coverage, while individual travel reports were just beginning to appear; some of this information shall be discussed in the following.

'XULQJWKH¿UVW\HDUVDIWHUSUHVVUHFHSWLRQ both international and domestic, was at the very least ambivalent. The London *Times* reported on 18 February 1901 that "The microscopic settlement, meas-XULQJ DERXW KDOI D VTXDUHPLOH ZKLFK KDG EHHQ VHcured by Austria-Hungary at Tientsin would be hardly worth talking about if it did not constitute the GpEXWRIWKH'XDO0RQDUFK\LQFRORQLDOSROLF\>«@D /LOOLSXWLDQ %RVQLD LQ WKH )DU (DVW´ TXRWHG LQ Schusta 1967, 154; Lehner 1992, 88). Back in the \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ PRWKHUODQG WKH R൶FLDO UHDFWLRQ in the Viennese press was not much more appreciative (Wagner 1955, 253–261; Lehner 1992, 87–9; Lehner 1999). Since the general context of this far-eastern "Habsburgs going global" (the present book's title) venture needed to be explained, on 15 February 1901 the *Wiener Abendpost* [Viennese (YHQLQJ3RVW@ UHIHUUHGWRWKH JHQHUDO GL൵HUHQFH EH-WZHHQ\$XVWULD¶V DFTXLVLWLRQ RI D ³VHWWOHPHQW´ DQG D ³FRORQ\´ IRUWKH EHQH¿W RILWV UHDGHUVLQWKHFDSLWDO of the monarchy.33 The 28 February 1901 issue of *Danzers Armee-Zeitung* (the army's journal) published a small sketch map of Tientsin's concessions, where the Austro-Hungarian one was highlighted ZLWKDQLURQLFVPDOOTXHVWLRQPDUNRYHUWZRSRVVLEOH sites **(Fig. 15a)**.

On the same day, the satirical magazine *Kikeriki! Humoristisches Volksblatt* WKH ¿UVW ZRUG EHLQJ DQ onomatopoeic German word for the cry of a rooster) depicted a rather helpless Austrian soldier on guard,

**Fig. 15a** Press cutting from the Austrian journal *Danzers Armeezeitung* of 28 February 1901, with a sketch map and WZRTXHVWLRQPDUNVDVUHJDUGV the unclear position of the "Ö.U.?" (meaning Austria-Hungary). [Danzers Armeezeitung, 28 February 1901, 2]

 <sup>33</sup> Referring to a "dispatch from Beijing", "Austria-Hungary had secured the land of a *Niederlassung* for the establishment of a consulate and for the settlement of its citizens and their business." Contrary to a "colony", a "settlement [was described] as a small exterritorial area where the settlers, most often around their consular representation, could live according to the law and order of the motherland." Wiener Abendpost, Beilage zur Wiener Zeitung, No. 38 (Friday 15 February 1901), cover page.

**Fig. 15b** Press cutting from the Austrian satirical magazine *Kikeriki*, 28 February 1901, cover. [Kikeriki! Humoristisches Volksblatt, 17 (28 February 1901), cover]

hanging in a basket out of the window of the projected consulate owing to limited space in the occupied concession **(Fig. 15b)**. 34

Interestingly, provincial newspapers back in the peripheral Austrian motherland — such as the *Echo aus Pilsen und Westböhmen* on 30 March 1901 reported "About the situation in Tientsin" [*Zur Lage in Tientsin*]35 as a sequel to the international siege of the city in 1900 (see the Figs. 11a,b in the introduction), but not a single word was said on the resulting Austrian territorial ambitions in that city.

A constant critical undertone also emanated from Viennese intellectuals against Austria's costly adventures in China. Amongst many others, a prominent comment was published in February 1904 by the journalist and writer Karl Kraus in his renowned newspaper *Die Fackel* [The Torch], in which he re-ÀHFWHG RQ ³WKH QHFHVVLW\ RI WKH ZKROH´ FRQFHVVLRQ project (he never visited Tientsin himself) and rather opted for Austria's involvement in the railway construction business all over China (Kraus 1904).

%H\RQG DOO R൶FLDO UKHWRULF DQG SROLWLFDO SURgrammes, individual eye-witness reports by Austrian and Hungarian visitors to the Austro-Hungarian con-FHVVLRQLQWKH¿UVW\HDUVRILWVH[LVWHQFHDUHSDUWLFXlarly helpful to better grasp actual local conditions and understand the kind of visual material, in the form of black-and-white photographs, that reached

**Figs. 16a,b** Two illustrations of the *Austrian Lloyd*, connecting the Austro-Hungarian Empire from the Adriatic (Italian) seaport of 7ULHVW7ULHVWHZLWKWKHZRUOGOHIWWKHORJRRIWKH\$XVWULDQ/OR\GZLWKLWVKHDGR൶FHLQ9LHQQDZLWKWKHHPEOHPRIWKHFRPSDQ\ ZLWKWKHGRXEOHKHDGHGHDJOHRIWKH'XDO0RQDUFK\WKHFRPSDQ\ÀDJWRWKHOHIWDQGWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQPHUFKDQWÀDJWRWKH right; right: the cover of the Austrian Lloyd travel information brochure for India and East Asia in 1913). [Winkler 1986, inner cover; Österreichischer Lloyd Triest 1913, inner cover]

 <sup>34 &</sup>quot;Das österreichisch-ungarische 'Settlement' in Tientsin", in: Danzers Armee-Zeitung, No. 9 (Vienna 28 February 1901), 2–3;

<sup>&</sup>quot;Platzmangel in Österreichisch-China", in: Kikeriki — Humoristisches Volksblatt, No. 17 (Vienna 28 February 1901), 1. 35 "Zur Lage in Tientsin", in: Echo aus Pilsen und Westböhmen, No. 13 (Pilsen, 30 March 1901), cover. Online: https://anno.onb. ac.at/cgi-content/anno?aid=ech&datum=19010330&seite=1&zoom=33 (retrieved 10 September 2021).

**Fig. 17a**

**Fig. 17b**

#### **Fig. 17c**

**Figs. 17a-c** 3KRWRJUDSKVIURP\*p]D6]XN¶VDUWLFOHDERXWWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQIURPWRSOHIWWRERWWRPULJKWDQG below from left to right): "Chinese street cobbler; The Chinese Police of the Tianjin Austro-Hungarian Settlement; Our Marine Detachment's commander; Potato-roasting Chinese on the streets" [17a]; "Our Tianjin Marine Detachment's storehouse; Chinese thief sentenced to *kang*" [17b]; "Our Tianjin Marine Detachment" [17c].

>6]XN\*p]D\$0L.LV.KLQiQN\$WLHQWVLQLRV]WUiNPDJ\DUWHOHStWYpQ\>2XU/LWWOH&KLQD7KH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQVHWWOHPHQWLQ7LDQjin], in: Vasárnapi Újság, Május 1, 1904 [1 May 1904], 292–293 (after a translation by Mátyás Mervay)]

the European mother country. Visitors' experiences LQWKH&KLQHVH\$XVWULDQFRQWDFW]RQHGL൵HUHGJUHDWO\ — seemingly in direct relation to their social and professional status — as did their 'ethnographic' curiosity for Chinese daily life on the spot or interactions with Austro-Hungarian protagonists (from acting consuls to stationed marines).

The global journeys of four travellers to Tientsin between 1904 and 1909 are depicted below. It is interesting to note that most likely all of them started their world trips from Austria's Adriatic port of Triest (Trieste, today in Italy), from where the *Austrian Lloyd* (Austria's shipping company36) connected the Austro-Hungarian Empire with all continents from the 1880s onwards **(Figs. 16a,b)**.

 <sup>36</sup> The Austrian Lloyd (*Österreichischer Lloyd*ZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQDQGKDGLWV¿UVWEDVHLQWKH\$GULDWLFVHDSRUWRI7ULHVW7ULHVWH WRGD\LQ,WDO\VLQFHLWKDVKDGLWVKHDGTXDUWHUVLQ9LHQQD)URPWKHHDUO\VFRQQHFWLRQVWR,QGLD%RPED\6LQJDpore and Hong Kong were established; in 1912, a new "express line [*Eillinie*] Triest-Shanghai" was added (Österreichischer Lloyd Triest 1913, 13; cf. Winkler & Pawlik 1986, 10–39).

7KH ¿UVW UHSRUW LV SDUWLFXODUO\ LQWHUHVWLQJ DQG TXLWH XQLTXH EHFDXVH LW GRFXPHQWV D ORQJHU VWD\ most probably towards the end of 1903 or early 1904, at a time when the 'Chinese' character of the newly occupied territory still seemed to be largely LQWDFW,WVDXWKRUZDV\*p]D6]XNWKH+XQJDULDQHQgineer from Budapest (see above) who visited East \$VLDWRVWXG\WKHHFRQRPLF¿QDQFLDODQGWHFKQLFDO conditions in Japan and China. His four-page report "Our little China. The Austro-Hungarian settlement in Tientsin" [in original Hungarian: "A Mi Kis Khi-QiQN \$ WLHQWVLQL RV]WUiNPDJ\DU WHOHStWYpQ\´@ painted the busy everyday life of the local Chinese population; it was published in the Budapest-based newspaper *Vasárnapi Újság* [Sunday Newspaper] along with seven photographs of exceptionally colourful scenes. During our research on the Austro-Hungarian concession, no other report displaying WKLVOHYHORIGHWDLORUTXDOLW\ZDVIRXQG²DIDFWWKDW OHDGVXVWRTXRWHDVXEVWDQWLDOSDUWRIWKHDUWLFOHDQG reproduce its photographs **(Figs. 17a-c)**:

[...] After the war's end, many [in Austria-Hungary] disapproved of Austria-Hungary's land ac-TXLVLWLRQLQ7LHQWVLQ&KLQDWKH\EHOLHYHGLWWREHD new burden, an unnecessary thing, since they thought that we wanted to colonise it. Now that I have had the chance to stay there longer to study the conditions of our little China, I do not believe WKDW , DP GRLQJ D XVHOHVV H൵RUW LI , VKRXOG WHOO D few things about it.

:KHQ,OHIW(XURSH,WKRXJKW,ZRXOG¿QGUDWKHU primitive conditions in Tientsin, but I was profoundly proved wrong. Tientsin is one of the most populous cities of China, with about one million residents, therefore more than Beijing, the capital of the Celestial Empire. Tientsin consists of two parts, one is the actual Chinese city, the other is the European settlement. [...]

Our settlement consists almost entirely of Chinese houses: a real Chinese city. Its area is about VL[WHQWKRIDVTXDUHNLORPHWUHMXVWDVODUJHDVRXU city centre in Budapest. The part of the Chinese cemetery closer to the railway still contains 10.000 graves. Although it is now forbidden to bury the dead there, it is still unpleasant when it rains; the DUHD EHFRPHV ÀRRGHG DQG WKH FR൶QV ORRVHQ XS The dislocation of the graves is hard, owing to the Chinese belief that they are not allowed to be disturbed. Still, with money one can solve everything in China, so we can redeem the tombs for some tri-ÀLQJVXP

The territories occupied by the other great powers are partly empty lots, or already built up with European-style houses, with good roads and boulevards. […]

On our settlement, so far not many things have happened. We are constructing a consular house, that is all. A large barrack has been planned, that FRXOG EH HTXLSSHG IRU GHIHQVLYH SXUSRVHV 7KH area is connected to the Chinese city by a rundown pontoon bridge that is opened every two hours for passing sailboats. These are the moments when the pulsing life that is typical of Chinese cities can be felt the most. Pack animals, sedan chairs, two-wheeled carts, masses of people gather on the bank, waiting to cross. Approximately 30.000 Chinese live in our district. The streets are narrow, two-three metres wide. The kern of the residents are underprivileged, apart from some rich Chinese merchants, chandlers and tradesmen. There is everything that Chinese mouths and eyes might wish for: theatres, baths, opium dens, pawnshops, and even Chinese schools, where the children sit in pairs at their little desks, with books, writing tools and teacups in front of them; the stooped, bespectacled teacher welcomes the foreign visitor with great deference.

The streets are clean, since it is forbidden to litter and pasture pigs, and this is great progress for WKH PRVW GL൶FXOW WDVN LV WR WUDLQ WKH &KLQHVH WR cleanliness. All these achievements are a tribute to the executive power, which is represented by Hugo Accurti, ship-of-the-line lieutenant commanding a detachment of forty marine soldiers. A ship-of-theline ensign and a naval doctor have been assigned to him. The supreme commander is based in Bei-MLQJ 2൶FHUV OLYH LQ D VPDOO &KLQHVH KRXVH QH[W door there is the administrative building with the FRXUWKRXVHWD[ R൶FH DQG SROLFH VWDWLRQ 2UGHULV maintained by seventy Chinese policemen, the socalled *shimbo*, who are serving with incredibly serious faces and are stationed in four rooms. Every morning they sentence trespassers caught on the previous day following an expeditious procedure. 7KH SXQLVKPHQW LV WZHQW\¿YH EDPERR VWURNHV D ¿QH RU VWRFNVWKH VRFDOOHG *kang*, which is tightened around the neck.

3XEOLF D൵DLUV DUH FRQGXFWHG E\ WKH PXQLFLSDO council, constituted by wealthy Chinese, where the military commander and our Tientsin Consul always have the majority. The Chinese are very sat-LV¿HG EHFDXVHWKH\ DUHWUHDWHG DFFRUGLQJWR(XURpean ways, but the Chinese authorities are envious of this treatment, for they view the [consular] jurisdiction as harming their own power. If a Chinese commits a crime outside of the settlement, of course that falls under Chinese jurisdiction.

In front of the municipal building, in a former Buddhist temple, lodges our marine detachment. The soldiers live in Chinese houses. In the courtyard stands the temple within a seven to eight-metre high, gold-covered wooden Buddha sculpture. It is a curious sight when sailors clean their horses in front of this saint, or carry hay into the room. A chapel-like room serves as a storehouse. There is a military hospital, too. I have found some Hungarian boys amongst the sailors.

Although the streets are washed with water, and cleaned, still, sometimes the stench is unspeakable, but this comes with China. The civil service/administration costs money, but taxes cover the expenses, there is even a good sum left over every year, so the settlement does not cost us a thing; it is PRUHOLNHO\WKDWLWWXUQVDSUR¿WIRUXV

It would not do any harm if, following the other great powers' examples, we would also make use of our settlement to promote commercial ends. Amongst all the European settlements, ours lays on the best location; we possess almost 1.5 km of riverbank along the Pei-Ho [River], and this is very important in Tientsin, since transport is conducted on the Imperial Canal and on the Pei-Ho [River]. On the east side, it is bordered by the railway, so that it is accessible by land as well as water.

While all the great powers are leasing their settlements from the Chinese, our settlement is the property of Austria-Hungary, we have occupied it; there is an agreement only about private property. So if there is a need for private buildings or lots, we have to expropriate them and the expropriation sums are set according to the condition of the houses. The public buildings, and temples, were simply taken by us, these are ours.

7KH VWUHHWV DUH ¿OOHG ZLWK SHRSOH DOO GD\ ORQJ On street corners, there are large red posters informing those who wish to be entertained about plays performed in the theatre. Theatre is a real passion of Chinese people and even in the tiniest YLOODJHZHFRXOG¿QGDWOHDVWRQHRSHQVWDJHLIQRW more), where travelling actors entertain the audience. […]

There are many shops here. The main wish of every Chinese is to become a businessman, and in skilfulness the Chinese surpass the Europeans. They possess an excellent talent for business. The shouting and the noise produced by all kinds of vendors unsettles one's brain; everybody attempts to shout louder than the neighbour, they beat metal bars, drums, copper plates. Barbers run along the narrow alleys, for here they shave men not in shops but on the streets. They carry a bar on their shoulder, on one side a small stool hangs, where the customer will sit, on the other side a little FORVHW ZLWK DOO WKH QHFHVVDU\ HTXLSPHQW ,Q WKH middle of the busiest bustle, he has his patient sit down, washes his face with some water and shaves him — soap is unknown here. After shaving, he unties his hair, combs it and braids it, all this for about seven pence. The most interesting thing is that, in the meantime, pack men with loaded donkeys will have passed along while he carries on with the greatest calmness.

Fortune tellers and scribes pursue their professions at small desks. Tramps and street beggars are not to be seen on the streets, while other cities are ¿OOHGZLWKWKHPDQG RKZRHWR \RX ,I \RX JLYH something, then the whole street runs after you!

2QDVTXDUHLQIURQWRIDWHPSOHWKHUHLVDUDWKHU great mass of people standing or sitting, and listening to an old Chinese's tale, who tells all sorts of stories with a peaceful face. Chinese people are passionate gamblers; men sit by the road and play cards. In the autumn, potato and chestnut vendors dwell on the streets. They roast potatoes in clay stoves, and chestnuts on small pebbles.

On the bank of the Pei-Ho rises a one-storied building, this is the public bath; by the entrance, a painting attracts attention: a carp bathing in the ZDYHV ,IWKHSLJWDLOHG IHOORZSD\VKLV¿YHSHQFH he can enter. In a large room there are small closets all around, and benches in the middle; the public undresses and goes into a room closed by a door, where there are benches and water is boiling in a KXJH FDXOGURQ ¿OOLQJ WKH URRP ZLWK VWHDP LQ which the Chinese man sweats. Then, when he comes out, water is poured on him, and in his Adam's costume he sits or lies down on the bench, and barbers and nail-cutters start their operations while they are drinking tea and smoking pipes.

The houses are packed very closely together, built of loam, there are no windows facing the streets. On the one hand, this is to prevent neighbours from peeping in, on the other hand for the women to be locked up from the outside world. :KHQ¿UHEUHDNVRXWZKLFKKDSSHQVIUHTXHQWO\LQ the hot summer, instead of bringing water and VWDUWLQJWRH[WLQJXLVKWKH¿UH¿UVWWKH\ZLOOWU\WR VFDUH DZD\ WKH ¿UH¶V EDG VSLULW ZLWK QRLV\ WRROV DQGRQO\ZKHQRXUSROLFHPHQDSSHDUZLWK¿UHHQ-JLQHVZLOOWKH¿UH¿JKWLQJVWDUWRIWHQWRRODWH

When a Chinese is sick, he will heal himself with all kinds of homemade herbs; they are afraid of European doctors, especially the women, but they have already come to be fond of our detachment's doctor, and when there is a problem, will often turn to him. Especially if it is about a surgical operation, they will willingly accept help, since they can see that the European treatment is worth more than the Chinese. Our doctor could tell interesting stories about the insensitivity of the Chinese. In cases where a European would have to be anesthetized, a Chinese will bear the pain without ÀLQFKLQJDVLQJOHPXVFOHDWWKH¿UVWFXWKHKLVVHV RQFHDQGWKDWLVLW

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:KHQ)ULHGULFK.OHLQD IRUPHU NXN GLVWULFWFRP-PLVVLRQHUSXEOLVKHGWKH*Travel memoirs with a special attention to the Austrian interests* RI KLV ZRUOG

**Figs. 18a,b** Above: The Chinese main road through the Austro-Hungarian concession, called *Hsin-Lung-Dschie*; below: The police station [*Polizeiwachstube*] in the Austro-Hungarian concession, as photographed by Friedrich Klein during his visit on 30 September 1905. [Klein, Friedrich: Nordamerika und Ostasien. Reiseerinnerungen. Leipzig 1910, 43, 45]

**Fig. 19** Photograph of Jaromir Holy (second from right) with Austro-Hungarian marines based in the Austro-Hungarian concession DQG³DQ\$XVWULDQ&KLQHVHSDUDPHGLF´DVKHZDVTXRWHGLQWKHERRNLQDZKLWHXQLIRUPDWWKHFHQWUHWDNHQLQ>+RO\-DURPLU 5XQGXPGLH(UGH:HOWUHLVH]ZHLHU|VWHUUHLFKLVFKHU2൶]LHUH:LHQSDJHEHWZHHQ±@

trip to *North America and East Asia,* he included his late September 1905 visit to "our Austro-Hungarian concession" (Klein 1910, 39–47). While he also commented on other building projects (see below), the following passages indicate that the new Aus-WUR+XQJDULDQ UHJLPHLGHQWL¿HG XVHIXO EXLOGLQJVLQside the original Chinese street patterns **(Fig. 18a**, cf. Figs. 44–46 in the photographic album of 1911, Ap-SHQGL[ LQ D ¿UVW VWHS DGDSWHG DOUHDG\ H[LVWLQJ buildings to their new purposes, and employed local Chinese **(Fig. 18b)** out of the densely populated area itself:

We entered *Hsin-Lung-Dschie*, a crooked, sinuous lane […] which is the only and shortest way be-WZHHQWKHLQGLJHQRXVTXDUWHU*Cheng-li*, the railway station, and the Italian and Russian settlements. 8QGHUVWDQGDEO\ LWV WUD൶F LV EXVWOLQJ HYHQ E\ WKH standards of Chinese street life. […]

During my visit, it was not possible to say exactly how many people live in our concession because preparations for a census were just in full swing. A rough estimate came to some 30,000 to 40,000, so that our settlement is the most populous of all. When it comes to native Austrians, however, \RXZLOO¿QGWHQDWWKHPRVW

In a narrow side street, an old *Jamen* — this is a palace for a high-ranking Mandarin — and a Buddha temple were converted into a barracks for our guard detachment [*Wachdetachement*] of forty marines, and our soldiers seem to feel rather cosy in the Buddha's holy halls. In the courtyard of the barracks lies an old Buddha statue made of wood, of astonishing dimensions, and an age-old and very valuable bronze bell — the last remains of an old shrine that are awaiting to be conveyed to Austria. 7KHFRXQWHUSDUWWRWKHVHPLOLWDU\JXDUGTXDUWHUVLV the police station on the main street. To be precise, while the military only ensures overall supervision, proper executive power is exercised by indigenous policemen. In their khaki uniforms and large Boer KDWVWKH\DUH RQO\LGHQWL¿DEOHDV\$XVWULDQ SROLFHmen thanks to the Austrian [double-headed, MF] eagle attached to their chests. (Klein 1910, 44–45)

\$V D IRXUWK DQG ¿QDO H[DPSOH RI \$XVWULDQ eye-witness reports, the curious booklet *Around the world. A trip around the globe by two Austrian of- ¿FHUV* [Rund um die Erde. Weltreise zweier österre-LFKLVFKHU2൶]LHUH@GHVHUYHVDPHQWLRQ ,WZDVSXElished by *K.u.K. Hautpmann*>&KLHI2൶FHU@-DURPLU Holy to report about "a whole year on a voyage from Vienna – back to Vienna" in 1909. As with Hübner's and Klein's travels before him, it started from Austria's Adriatic port of Trieste, from where the *Aus-* *trian Lloyd* brought him to China. He stayed for some days in Tientsin, and met with Austrian ma-ULQHVDQGFRRSHUDWLYH&KLQHVHVWD൵**(Fig. 19)**:

As regards the importance and beauty of its buildings, our settlement assuredly cannot be compared to the English, German or French concessions but, as Austrians we cannot help feeling touched — and at the same time somewhat wistful — as we step onto a tiny patch of earth, in God's wide world, beyond the black-and-yellow boundary marks [of Austria-Hungary in metropolitan Europe, MF], which may not be in Austria's possession, but all the same is a place where, just like the others, we have secured the right to settle, to our own administration and to our own police force.

A [Chinese, MF] keeper of the law with his hair in braids, an old Austrian sapper's sabre, and our double-headed eagle on the buckle of his shoulder strap [*Überschwungriemen*], isn't this a sight for

**Fig. 20a** Photograph of the old Chinese pontoon bridge to connect the Chinese city with the future Austro-Hungarian concession, published in Winterhalder's 1902 book *Kämpfe in China* [Winterhalder 1902, 535]

**Fig. 20b** Photograph (*c.*1902) of the old Chinese pontoon bridge connecting the Chinese city with the future Austro-Hungarian concession (note the Austrian marine, in white, standing on the bridge). [Austrian War Archive, Vienna]

the gods to behold? We could not deny ourselves the pleasure of lining up such a specimen — I believe our fellow was also an "Austrian" sanitary R൶FHU²IRUWKHSLFWXUHWKDWZHWRRNRIRXUVWUDSping marine unit [*Marinedetachement*] […]

The positioning of our settlement along the Peiho just opposite the Chinese City does not appear to be unfavourable for its development; unfortunately, the absolutely necessary spirit of enterprise [*Unternehmungslust*] is missing in our world of commerce; that, alone, could enable this little 'Austria in China' to stand on its still rather gaunt little legs. […] May God help! (Holy 1911, 228–9)

As these four samples prove, the social and profes-VLRQDOVWDWXVRIWKHYLVLWRUVQRWRQO\D൵HFWHGWKHLUH[ periences on the spot as regards local informants and visited sites in the contact zone, but also the word choice in eventual publications in the then-popular format of 'travel memoirs and diaries' at a time ZKHQ\$XVWULD¿QDOO\EHFDPHFRQQHFWHGWRWKHZRUOG through her own steamship connections — from Trieste all the way to East Asia.

#### **3.2. Establishing visual markers: a consulate, the river quays and an iron bridge (1905– 06)**

Besides an institutional set-up and management plan to develop her new concession, Austria-Hungary was in a hurry to establish visual markers of its diplomatic presence — and this was, of course, a consulate building.37 After he was installed as consul, Carl Bernauer was confronted with a rather curious situation: there existed neither a private residence QRU DQ LPSRVLQJ R൶FH IRU KLV GLSORPDWLF GXWLHV LQ the newly established Austro-Hungarian concession. As he reported back to Vienna in a series of notes in early 1902, Bernauer had to rent a "three-room apartment on the periphery of the French concession" (in 1904, he apparently moved to the German concession),38 and even pondered the options of the ³UHQWDO RU QHZFRQVWUXFWLRQ RIDQ R൶FLDO EXLOGLQJ´ Additionally, he commented about "the long distance between the Austro-Hungarian concession itself and the centre of social life" (i.e. the French and British concessions),39 but this "great disadvantage [*grosser Übelstand*] would hopefully be at least partly remedied in the foreseeable future by the planned electric tramway" (see below).

However, before either project (an electric tramway and a consulate) could become reality, the site ZKHUHWKH\ZRXOGEHEXLOWKDGWREHUHDUUDQJHG¿UVW **(Fig. 20a)**RQWKHRQHKDQGWKHROGZRRGHQÀRDWLQJ bridge that connected the 'Chinese native city' to the west over the Hai River with the new Austro-Hungarian concession (compare with the maps in Figs. 4–9) and, on the other, the riverbank on the 'Austrian' side itself, which was *de facto* unconsolidated and, across a mere dirt road, completely built up with small Chinese houses.

As far as the existing bridge was concerned, its ROG ÀRDWLQJ SRQWRRQV ZHUH MXGJHG WRR XQVWDEOH IRU LQFUHDVLQJWUD൶FHVSHFLDOO\DWORZZDWHUZKHQWKH ÀH[LEOH FRQQHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH ULYHUEDQN DQG WKH ÀRDWLQJ HOHPHQWV EHFDPH WRR VWHHS D UHSODFHPHQW with an iron bridge including tramway tracks had already been under discussion since 1902 (see below). Newly discovered plans in the Austrian State Archives not only prove that Austrian marines already controlled the old structure **(Fig. 20b)**, but also that HQJLQHHULQJH൵RUWVZHUHLQLWLDWHGLQ-XQHWRUH-LQIRUFH WKH ÀRDWLQJ VWUXFWXUH ZLWK ³QHZ SODQNLQJ over the boats" and two new foundations on both sides **(Figs. 21a,b)**. 40

 <sup>37</sup> So far, references to this building project are few, cf. Lehner 1995, 327–30; Agstner 2018, 70–71.

 <sup>38</sup> With an attached contract, Bernauer reported in January 1904 that "he had rented a semi-detached house from the Land Investment Company, located on Wilhelmstraße in the German concession" (HHStA A.R. F8/241 (16), Tientsin 14 January 1904). 39 ++6W\$\$5)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVDQG\$SULO%HUQDXHUDWWDFKHGDQR൵HUE\³6HOEHUJ

<sup>&</sup>amp; Schlüter, company of structural and civil engineering, Berlin and Tsingtau" (the German colonial marine base, some 600 km south-east of Tianjin). 40 HHStA GesA Peking 103 (Settlement – Dschunkenbrücke), Bernauer to the Austrian legation in Beijing, 12 June 1903. A cost es-

WLPDWHZDVWXUQHGLQE\WKH¿UP³0'LHWULFK6KDQJKDL 7LHQWVLQ:LOKHOPVWUDH´RQ-XQH

**Figs. 21a,b** Old pontoon bridge across the Hai River: repair drawings of 1903 [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

#### <sup>X</sup> **The consulate**

Meanwhile, the Vienna-based Ministry of Foreign \$൵DLUV KDGDJUHHGLQ\$SULO WR EXLOGDQDSSURpriate diplomatic representation. In this context, the political circumstances surrounding the Boxer Uprising in 1900, the siege of the international legation TXDUWHULQ%HLMLQJDQGWKHSDUWLDOGHVWUXFWLRQRIWKH \$XVWULDQUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQWKDWTXDUWHUQHHGWREHUHmembered (cf. Fig. 9 in the introduction by Georg Lehner). To rebuild and partially enlarge the damaged main building, Ferdinand Kowarski, a Silesia-born architect who had studied in Vienna and was a veritable globetrotter in his profession,41 was selected for this purpose. Rare historical photographs from the Austrian State Archives (War Archives section) in Vienna were tracked down during the present research; they indicate the 'before-and-after' conditions of Kowarski's project in Beijing **(Figs. 22a,b)**.

**Figs. 22a,b** The heavily damaged building of the Austro-Hungarian Legation in Beijing, and its rebuilding by architect Ferdinand Kowarski (before and after 1902), photographs from Austrian War Archives [Austrian State Archives, Department of *Kriegsarchiv*]

 <sup>41</sup> A short obituary in the *Zeitschrift des Österr. Ingenieurs- und Architekten-Vereins* [Journal of the Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects] highlighted the global career of "Ferdinand Kowarski v. Stepowron" (Schulz-Straznicki 1907), while the internal correspondence of Austria-Hungary's delegation in Beijing added further information (HHStA GesA Peking 80, Akte "Ferdinand Kowarski", entry of 26 June 1906): born in Teschen in Austrian Silesia in 1844, he had studied at the Polytechnical Institute in Vienna and participated in various railway construction projects — from Austria to the Caucasus and Bulgaria. After his involvement with the above-mentioned projects, he apparently planned to work on the Russian embassy in Beijing, but died on an Austrian Lloyd passenger steamship, the 'Imperatore', on 13 June 1906 near Cape Matapan (the southern tip of the Greek Peloponnese peninsula) while working on a sanatorium building in Egypt.

**Figs. 23a,b** )ORRUSODQVDQGHOHYDWLRQSODQZLWKVLGHVÀLSSHGE\DUFKLWHFW)HUGLQDQG.RZDUVNLIRUWKHPDLQFRQVXODWHEXLOGLQJRI the Austro-Hungarian concession (1903), stored in the Austrian State Archives [Austrian State Archives]

**Figs. 24a,b** Floor plans by architect Ferdinand Kowarski for the annex building of the consulate of the Austro-Hungarian concession VWRUHGLQWKH\$XVWULDQ6WDWH\$UFKLYHV >\$XVWULDQ6WDWH\$UFKLYHV@

Shortly after, he was assigned the job to build the new consulate building complex in Tientsin, and a contract was apparently signed in April 1903. Two months later, Bernauer reported that Kowarski had produced a set of ground plans for WKH PDLQ FRQVXODWH EXLOGLQJ ZLWK R൶FHV RQ WKH JURXQGÀRRUDQGWKHR൶FLDOUHVLGHQFHRIWKHFRQ-VXORQWKHXSSHUÀRRU**(Fig. 23a)**. The only elevation plan that could be found — unfortunately not of the main façade with a veranda on the river side, but of the longer façade containing the secondary entrance, which faced Baron Czikann 6WUHHW ² WHVWL¿HV WR .RZDUVNL¶V UDWKHU FRQYHQtional classical design **(Fig. 23b)**. For the annex EXLOGLQJ KH GHVLJQHG R൶FHV IRU WKH DGPLQLVWUD-WLRQ RI WKH FRQFHVVLRQ DQG SROLFH JURXQG ÀRRU DQG D ÀDW IRU WKH FOHUN >*Kanzlerbeamter*] (upper ÀRRU**(Figs. 24a,b)**. Additionally, stables and even a tennis court were sometimes mentioned, but WKHVH IHDWXUHV FRXOG QRW EH FRQ¿UPHG E\ SKRWRgraphs for this study. Also, it seems that Kowar-VNL¶VSODQVDVGHSLFWHGKHUHZHUHQRWDFWXDOO\H[Hcuted in all their details.

According to Bernauer, Kowarski had presented a cost estimate of *c.*87.000 Mexican dollars (about *c.*\$XVWULDQFURZQV42 but he had to admit that "the duration of the project highly depended on the process of clearing the site of existing houses, whose owners needed to be expropri-DWHG¿UVW´43 In a letter dating from October 1903, %HUQDXHU UHFRQ¿UPHGWKH³FRQVHQW RIWKH%HLMLQJ Delegation for the overall 2700 m2 construction site, the expropriation and clearing of the spot, and IRU .RZDUVNL¶V UHYLVHG SODQV DQG FRVW FDOFXOD-WLRQV´44 However, procedures went not as smoothly as projected; in December 1903, Bernauer had to report that a "Petition by the recently H[SURSULDWHG KRXVH RZQHUV´ ZDV QRW LVVXHG DQG delivered to him, but published in the *China Times* on 4 December 1903.45 A curious exchange of letters — between the relevant authorities in Tientsin,

 <sup>42</sup> One Austrian crown of 1903 would equal some €7 in

<sup>2022. 43</sup> ++6W\$\$5)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RU-HLJQ\$൵DLUV-XQH

 <sup>44</sup> ++6W\$\$5)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RU-HLJQ\$൵DLUV2FWREHU:KLOHWKHKHDYLO\PRGL¿HG structure of the surviving consulate building could not be accessed during my visit to Tianjin in December 2018 (see )LJVD±FQRKLVWRULFDOSKRWRJUDSKVRIWKHRULJLQDOLQWHrior could be found either. 45 A note was found in HHStA GesA Peking 101, but the

newspaper text concerned could not be located.


**Fig. 25** Cost estimate (31 January 1905) by *Toman Kunst- und Bauschlosserei*  (Vienna) for the exterior and interior metal decorations of the consulate building [Austrian State Archives]

Beijing and Vienna, the architect (he was reportedly hardly there during the entire construction period), local consultants, the manager in charge of construc-WLRQ WKH QHLJKERXULQJ %UXQQHU &RQVWUXFWLRQ ¿UP see Fig. 9 in the Photographic Album in the Appendix), and suppliers — explains the delay in project completion.46

Remarkably, this instance of 'Habsburgs going global' from Central Europe to the Far East entailed the sending, all the way from Austria, of exterior decorations (like the metal fence, **Fig. 25**) and all interior furnishings (from stucco to handrails, carpets, wallpapers, heating stoves and furniture) for the consulate complex! As with the Beijing project, the *k. k. private Südbahn-Gesellschaft* (a private Austrian rail company) and the *Österreichische Lloyd* agreed to transport building material from Vienna over the Alps to the port of Trieste, and from there all the way to China.

The completed project consisted of two buildings, with the main building rather neo-classical and the annex building a little more historicist in style. It was "bright white and an unmistakably Austrian EXLOGLQJGHVLJQ´DV.OHLQSXWLWLQKLVDERYHTXRWHG memoirs, illustrated with photographs that he had taken during his own late September 1905 visit to the Austro-Hungarian concession **(Fig. 26a)**: the entrance of the main consulate building (left-hand side) was oriented towards the river and welcomed visitors coming from the west over the old pontoon bridge (see the Chinese boats in the foreground); it included a two-storey, columned open veranda (note the isolated brick gateway without any connecting fences).

It was in this rather bare setting that the opening RIWKHQHZFRQVXODWHZDVR൶FLDOO\FHOHEUDWHGRQ September 1905. This important event took place in WKH SUHVHQFH RI<XDQ 6KLNDLWKH KHDGV RIWKHORFDO Chinese administration, and many other important ¿JXUHV DV 9LFH&RQVXO (UQVW /XGZLJ SURXGO\ UHported back to Vienna:

I saw it as my patriotic duty to solemnise this occasion and to send invitations to the Viceroy of Tchili <XDQ 6KLKNDL >VLF@ DQGWKH KHDGV RIWKH &KLQHVH authorities. As the S.M. 'Empress Elisabeth' had just reached Ching wang-tao near Tientsin, Commander [*&RPPDQGDQW/LQLHQVFKLৼV&DSLWlQ*] Mirtl, VRPH R൶FHUV DQG WKH ZKROH RUFKHVWUD DOVR FDPH

 <sup>46</sup> For example, interim Consul Ludwig complained in October 1905 that "building elements (such as stair railings, wallpapers and ceiling decorations) arrived too late and delayed completion, [as much as the fact that] the architect oversaw the project from Beijing, Japan, Egypt and Vienna, and was therefore not informed about work progress". Ludwig even recommended a penalty [*Pönale*] against Kowarski (HHStA A.R. F8/241 (35), Ludwig to the Beijing Delegation, 26 October 1905).

over. Likewise, legation councillor Dr. von Rosthorn, the delegation commander [*Gesandt schafts-Schutzwach-Commandant Corvetten Capitän*] von 3ÀJO DQG WKH KHUH SUHVHQW PHPEHUV RI WKH\$XVtro-Hungarian Colony [sic] attended.

7KHFRQVXODWHWKHTXD\LQIURQWDQGWKHSRQWRRQ bridge were decorated by our concession with ÀDJVODPSLRQVHWFDQGZLWKLQWKLVPDJLFVWDJHVHW the new and entirely white building appeared very monumental and stately. Only too bad that the perimeter fence towards the waterside was not yet ¿QLVKHG DQGWKDWWKLV VLGH KDG D EDUH DSSHDUDQFH […]

The celebration started with a short reception WKDWZDVIROORZHGDWSPZLWKDEDQTXHWLQSUHVence of the Viceroy. I need to mention here to His Excellency that the Viceroy to this date had never attended any afternoon or evening celebrations by Europeans and that his presence — as he person-DOO\ UHFRQ¿UPHGLQ D FRQYHUVDWLRQWR XV² FRXOG be solely ascribed to the extremely cordial relationship between our governments. This friendly relationship was also mentioned in several toasts raised at the table.

\$V UHJDUGVWKH FLUFXPVWDQFHWKDW<XDQ 6KLKNDL LVWKHPRVWSRZHUIXODQGLQÀXHQWLDOPDQLQ&KLQD **Fig. 26a** A view towards the two newly built consulate buildings of the Austro-Hungarian concession, published in Friedrich Klein's "Travel Memories" [*Reiseerinnerungen*] of 1910. [Klein 1910, Illus. 8]

today, and that his reputation and importance even surpass those of Empress Dowager and the Emperor, a further *rapprochement* with him would VHHP XVHIXO WR RYHUFRPH RXU FRPPHUFLDO DQG ¿ nancial hindrances in China.47

In the same vein, the Austrian Legation councillor, Arthur von Rosthorn himself, reported back to the 0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQD:LWKKLPVHOI being in attendance at the opening of the consulate, KH DOVR UHIHUUHG WR ³WKH GL൵HUHQW VSHHFKHV XQGHU ZKLFKWKHWRDVW RIWKH \*RYHUQRU \*HQHUDO<XDQ6KL K'ai [sic] about the rapprochement between China and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy deserved a special mention."48 Fostering this diplomatic connection, Bernauer could proudly report back to Vienna from his "business trip to the Beijing Delegation […] that on 21 September 1907 His Majesty had DZDUGHGWKH9LFHUR\<XDQ6KL.ZDL>VLF@WKH\*UDQG Cross of the Order of Francis Josef [*Großkreuz des Franz-Josef-Ordens*]" and just two days later with an even more obvious agenda connected to concrete projects inside the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin — "the local Customs Tautai Li-DQJ 7XQ <HQ >VLF@ UHFHLYHG WKH ³&RPPDQGHU¶V

<sup>48</sup> ++6W\$\$5)/HJDWLRQVUDWK\$Y5RVWKRUQWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV%HLMLQJ6HSWHPEHU

 <sup>47</sup> ++6W\$\$5)5HSRUWE\/XGZLJWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVRQ6HSWHPEHU

**Fig. 26b** A close-up view from the north-east towards the Austro-Hungarian con sulate, published in *Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung* [Austria's Illustrated Press] of 10 February 1907. [Österreichs Illus trierte Zeitung, Vol. 19 (10 February 1907), 451]

**Fig. 26c** A view towards the secretariat building, adjacent to the Austro-Hungarian consulate, depicted in *Zeitschrift des Österr. Ingenieur- und Architektenvereins* [Journal of the Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects] of 1907. [Zeitschrift des Österr. Ingenieur- und Architektenvereins, No. 14 (4 April 1907), 257]

Cross of the Order of Francis Josef [*Komthurkreuz des Franz-Josef-Ordens*]".49 This diplomatic Sino-Austrian contact zone was kept well alive over the years. A couple of years later, in a report to Vienna (1909), the new Consul Ernst Ludwig who, after all, was a diplomatic representative of one of the oldest European monarchies, also praised the cherished Chinese-Austrian relations and remembered <XDQ6KLNDL²RQHRIWKHPRVWH൵HFWLYH4LQJJRYernors until the death of Empress Dowager in 1908

<sup>49</sup> ++6W\$\$5)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV)HEUXDU\

and with a reported *faible* for mimicking old imperial grandeur50 — as "the most promising man for the reorganisation of the Chinese empire" (quoted in Lehner 1995, 330). From today's perspective, events such as the opening ceremony of the Austro-Hungarian consulate in 1905 may be conceptualised as temporary stages where various Chinese and international consular actors would perform their mutual 'late Empire attitudes' and 'world trade' business in the "hyper-colonial" setting of Tientsin (after Rogaski 2000, 34).51

Beyond all representative actions, the structural and decorative completion of the consulate complex was not achieved until far into 1906. Maybe these circumstances explain why illustrated press coverage in Austria was extremely rare. Professional journals like *Der Bautechniker* [The Civil Engineer] in 1906 were more concerned about the supposed costs of the project,52 while the *Zeitschrift des Österr. Ingenieurs- und Architekten-Vereins* [Journal of the Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects] only depicted the annex building **(Fig. 26c)** in a short obituary about the architect (Schulz-Straznicki 1907). Vienna's *Modern Family Journal — Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung*, which was designed to appeal to a wide audience in Austria, reported on "The Austro-Hungarian Settlement in Tientsin" in its issue of 10 February 1907, and placed a photograph of the consulate **(Fig. 26b)** next to a couple of illustrations, in the before-and-after mode, of the neighbouring bridge (see Figs. 35a,b).

The side-by-side picturing of the new Austrian FRQVXODWH DQG WKH ROG &KLQHVH EULGJH D൵HFWHG WKH fragile self-image of the Habsburgs' civilising mission in the Far East, as a curious small project pro-SRVDO ZRXOG VHHP WR LQGLFDWH LQ WKH \HDU when the famous Austrian architect Ferdinand Fellner53 was commissioned to design a decorative niche in the stairway of the Austro-Hungarian embassy in Beijing [*Gesandschaftspalais*] for a statue of the Emperor Francis Joseph **(Fig. 27a)**, the same "spon-VRU WKH ¿UP RI \$OIUHG 7DXVVLJ 7LHQWVLQ´ ZLWK LWV seat next to the consulate complex) proposed a simi-ODUSURMHFW³DIUHHVWDQGLQJVWDWXHRI+LV0DMHVW\DW its own cost on the land of the Austro-Hungarian 6HWWOHPHQW´ :KLOH D OHWWHU IURP ³\*RWWOLHE 7DXVVLJ perfumeries factory, Vienna" **(Fig. 27b)** still supported this proposal in 1908, when construction of the new bridge had already been completed, the attached photographic description of the monument's suggested positioning next to the old Chinese bridge **(Fig. 27c)** triggered a negative response from the consulate administration.54

#### <sup>X</sup> **Riverside and quay constructions**

As regards improving the infrastructure, Tientsin's international concession community worked "with great verve" (Bernauer 1905, 32) and tackled the urban riverbanks for the following decades. What he was referring to was the *Hai-Ho Conservancy Commission*, which had been founded in 1894 and restructured in 1901 by the *Tientsin Provisional Government* as a collaborative board of engineers and city planners. It improved the course of the river (be-WZHHQ 7LHQWVLQ DQG LWV ULYHU GHOWD LQ 7DNX'DJX WR-ZDUGVWKH%RKDL6HDDVUHJDUGVÀRRGSURWHFWLRQDQG

 <sup>50</sup> As an *Encyclopaedia of Modern Dictators* has it, Yuan later (after 1905) ruled like a dictator, "got himself elected […] Emperor, >OLNHG@WREHGUHVVHGOLNHKLV\$XVWULDQRU-DSDQHVHFRXQWHUSDUWEXWFODLPHGSRZHUVPRUHEH¿WWLQJD3HWHUWKH\*UHDWWKDQDFRQVWLWX-

tional monarch" (Kinkley 2006, 327; compare with MacKinnon 1980 and Shan 2018). 51 5RJDVNL¶V REVHUYDWLRQ DERXW ³WKH HPHUJHQFH RI D K\SHUFRORQ\´ LQ 7LHQWVLQ ZDV LQÀXHQWLDO IRU DOO VXEVHTXHQW VWXGLHV DERXW D pan-colonial setting of which the Austro-Hungarian concession had been part, but had not yet been taken into consideration. 7KHUHIRUHKHUGH¿QLWLRQLVTXRWHGKHUHLQIXOOOHQJWK³'XULQJWKH¿UVWWZRGHFDGHVRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7LDQMLQZDVWKHORFDtion of as many as nine foreign settlements. I characterize Tianjin's unique situation as a 'hyper-colony' […] First, Tianjin's status as a hyper-colony placed Chinese elites and nonelites alike under the gaze — and sometimes the control — of multiple imperial powers. As a result, there were multiple actors within Tianjin who utilized the discourse of hygiene as a symbol of foreign superiority and a marker of Chinese inadequacy. At the same time, the close juxtaposition of so many foreign settlements within one ur-EDQVSDFHGUDPDWLFDOO\LQÀXHQFHGWKHVHOIUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIWKHLPSHULDOSRZHUVDWWKHORFDOOHYHODQGR൵HUHGWKH&KLQHVHDYLHZ of several variant models of urban modernity. Finally, in contrast to colonial cities, the presence of a 'native-administered' area within the city provided some groups in Tianjin society with a physical and symbolic space from which they tested and reshaped the dictates of the new regime" (Rogaski 2000, 34). 52 \$VKRUWQRWLFHOLVWHGWKHDFWXDOFRVWVIRUWKHNXN0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVDVUHJDUGV&KLQHVHEXLOGLQJSURMHFWVIRUWKHHP-

EDVV\EXLOGLQJVLQ%HLMLQJ*Kronen*DQGIRU7LHQWVLQFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHFRQVXODWHHQVHPEOH.DQGUHQRYDWLRQ RIWKHPLOLWDU\EDUUDFNV.,Q'HU%DXWHFKQLNHU;;9,WK\HDU1R-XQH

<sup>53</sup> 7RJHWKHUZLWK)HOOQHU¶VSDUWQHU+HUPDQQ+HOPHUWKH¿UP)HOOQHU +HOPHUGHVLJQHGRYHUEXLOGLQJVPDLQO\RSHUDKRXVHV and apartment buildings) in all corners of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 54 ++6W\$\*HV\$3HNLQJ3URMHNW.DLVHU'HQNPDOH[FKDQJHRIOHWWHUVEHWZHHQDQG

**Figs. 27a,b** Elevation and section drawing by Atelier Fellner und Helmer (Vienna) for the *Kaiserdenkmal* in the Austro-Hungarian Legation Palais in Beijing (above), and the letter (1908) by the *Toilette-Seifen- und Parfumerien-Fabrik Taussig K.u.K. Hofund Kammer-Lieferant* asking for the installation of a similar monument for the Austrian Emperor in Tientsin [Austrian State Archives]


commercial navigation. In its annual report of 1905 (the summary was published only in 1919 when, ironically, the Austro-Hungarian concession no longer existed), the *Hai-Ho Conservancy Commission* mentioned the completion of the overall works in Tientsin's harbour area. This also included "widening and straightening of the river over a large portion of the Austrian Concession (the width attained there was 250 feet)". The report continued: "The work involved in widening this cutting in order to mitigate WKH GL൶FXOW\WR QDYLJDWLRQ FDXVHG E\WKH VDOWMXQNV moored in the cutting was commenced" (Hai-Ho

**Fig. 27c** Photograph in viewing direction towards the newly completed consulate building in the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin, with a hand-written explanation about the exact positioning ("x") of the projected *Kaiserdenkmal* (attached to the 1908 let-WHUIURPWKH7DXVVLJ¿UPWRWKHFRQVXODWHFRPSDUHWKHEDFNFRYHURIWKLVSUHVHQWERRN>\$XVWULDQ6WDWH\$UFKLYHV@

**Fig. 28** "The Peiho at the Austro-Hungarian Settlement in Tientsin", depicted in Friedrich Klein's "Travel Memories" [*Reise erinnerungen*] of 1910 (compare with Fig. 7) [Klein 1910, Illus. 9]

**Fig. 29** Floor and section plans for the constructions along the Hai River in the Austro-Hungarian concession [Austrian State Archives]

**Figs. 30a,b** Sketch plans and elevations for the construction of the new main street [*Hauptstrasse*] through the Austro-Hungarian concession and for the new *Bund Street*, with details of the projected tramway line (June 1905) [Austrian State Archives]

Conservancy 1919, 23; compare with the Illustrations 86–115 in the photographic album of *c.*1911 in the Appendix, cf. Grünfeld 1913, 145; Rasmussen 1925, 221, 268).

Again, Friedrich Klein's September 1905 visit to the Austro-Hungarian concession is an important source to set the aforementioned rhetoric of the Hai-Ho Conservancy Commission on technological GHYHORSPHQWLQUHODWLRQWRWKHVSHFL¿Fµ\$XVWULDQ¶UHality on the ground. One of Klein's published photographs, entitled "The Peiho in the Austro-Hungarian settlement in Tientsin" (actually he depicted the Hai River), gives us an impression of how little the Hai River was actually developed at that point in time along the Austro-Hungarian section **(Fig. 28)**.

However, internal correspondence proves that this costly issue was at least budgeted for that year: Bernauer reported to Vienna on 22 May 1905 that VHYHUDO SURMHFW SURSRVDOV IRU WKH TXD\ FRQVWUXFWLRQ had been discussed (one French proposal for the "Quais de la Concession Autrichienne à Tientsin" could be located in the Austrian State Archives) **(Fig. 29)** or, more precisely, for "the 400 m-long southern section between the [projected new and] more stable bridge and the neighbouring Italian concession".55

Just one month later, Ludwig added two plans and elevation sketches about how the imaginaire of a (Shanghai-inspired, though without a doubt much smaller, Austrian version of a) "Bund Street" would ideally be combined with a thirty-feet wide paved and drivable street, with a sewer system under-JURXQG DQG SDYHPHQWV DQG DQ HOHFWUL¿HG WUDPZD\ along its sides **(Figs. 30a,b)**. 56

On 30 June 1905, interim Consul Ernst Ludwig drafted an addition to the existing "settlement treaty" (see above) in which he explained the complex inter-SOD\EHWZHHQWKHLQWHQGHGTXD\DQGVWUHHWFRQVWUXFtions along the river, the upcoming iron bridge and tramway project, and the inner-city development of

 <sup>55</sup> ++6W\$)&DUO%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ0D\

<sup>56</sup> ++6W\$)(UQVW/XGZLJWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ-XQH

**Fig. 31** Area plan and topographical section (*Verlauf des Nivellments*) of Austro-Hungarian concession (dated June 1905); the ³JRGRZQV´DUHDLQWKHQRUWKZHVWLVLQGLFDWHGDORQJZLWKWKHGL൶FXOWJUDYH\DUGVLWHVLQWKHVRXWKHDVWRIWKHFRQFHVVLRQ>\$XVWULDQ State Archives]

the Austro-Hungarian concession through a dedicated investment company (see below). The attached sketch plans **(Figs. 31, 32)** indicated the areas from which the local Chinese population was to be expropriated (including the large graveyards), and whose dwellings were gradually to be displaced in the following years by "Austro-Hungarian subjects" and their European-styled houses or "godowns" along a Shanghai-inspired "Bund".

In the end, this was wishful thinking and a scenario that never really happened. Moreover, the site of the slightly more southern new bridge and the new main street with structures built by the "construction company" [*Bau-Gesellschaft*] were already indicated:

Along the river of the Haiho, from the northern limit of our concession to its southern limit, which borders the Italian Concession, Austro-Hungarian subjects have the right to buy land and houses from the Chinese in order to build houses or **Fig. 32** Development plan for the Austro-Hungarian concession (*c.*June 1905) including indications (in red) about: "the strip being reserved for Austrian and Hungarian citizens" along the river; reserved plots for the Hotung "Baugesellschaft" [Construction Company] to the north and south of the new main street; and the new bridge across the Hai River [Austrian State Archives]

JRGRZQV EXW RQO\ LQ SORWV WKDW DUH ¿IW\PHWUH wide, counting from the border of the new Bund under construction. […] A committee composed of two Europeans, a civil engineer and a European functionary of the concession, and two Chinese, under the presidency of the Austro-Hungarian Consul or the Chairman of the municipality, if such a body will be in existence later on, will be appointed, whenever the case arises, and will set the price of the land and the houses to be expropri-DWHG7KHVHPRGL¿FDWLRQVZLOO HQWHULQWR IRUFHLQstantly once the bridge issue has been satisfactorily settled with the Chinese authorities and after ap-SURYDOE\WKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVEXWZLOO not be applicable to the Austro-Hungarian Hotung Land Investment Company, which is to be established this year, with regard to the construction of a road from the iron bridge to the railway terminus, which is to have a width of 50 feet and a 100-foot wide piece of land on both sides of this road, where it is intended to build semi-foreign and foreign houses."57

 <sup>57</sup> HHStA F63/1 (47), Draft of the overall development, Ludwig, Tientsin 30 June 1905.

#### <sup>X</sup> **The new bridge and the tramway line**

In the context of the infrastructural measures, one Austro-Hungarian highlight was certainly the re-SODFHPHQWRIWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGROGÀRDWLQJSRQtoon bridge in wooden construction with an iron swing bridge. Leading towards the newly built con-VXODWH WKH EULGJH ZRXOG ¿QDOO\ SURYLGH D SHUIHFWO\ 'engineered' visual entry into the Austro-Hungarian concession. From a logistical point of view, given WKHLQFUHDVLQJ DPRXQW RIWUD൶FWKH EULGJH EHFDPH all the more necessary, especially as the Belgian *Compagnie Internationale de Tramways et d'Éclairage de Tientsin* ZLWK LWV KHDGTXDUWHUV LQ WKH\$XVtro-Hungarian concession, see Fig. 55b) was planning a tramway line across the international concessions (Liu 2006; Dussart-Desart 2017; Zhao 2018).

One important task in this regard was to connect the railway station in the south-east, through the Austro-Hungarian concession and over the Hai River, with the Chinese City to the north-west. While internal correspondence indicates that project proposals for a tramway system already circulated as early as 1902 and a contract with the Chinese government was apparently signed in 1904, concrete involvement of the Austro-Hungarian concession only gained momentum from 1905. At that point, as Ludwig explained in an interim report to Rosthorn in October 1905, L. Jadot, engineer and manager of the *Compagnie de Tramways*, had reached general agreements with the Italian and Russian concessions, ³DSSURDFKHG WKH %HOJLXP 0LQLVWHU DQG <XDQ 6KLK kai, and urged the other contracting partners to ratify the contract", whose draft version was also sent to the Austrian consulate.58 Together with an earlier draft of the tramway connections across the Austro-Hungarian concession, although not across the river (**Fig. 33a**D³VSHFL¿FDWLRQRIWKHEULGJH´ZDV attached: it was planned to have a total length of 248 English feet, between the abutments, over the Hai River, stand about 60 feet below the [old, MF] boat bridge of Tung Fu Chiao, with movable parts allowing fairway not less than 48 feet wide for navigation, a 23-foot wide road on the bridge with two 4-foot walkways, a single track for the electric tramway, electric machinery for opening and closing the bridge, and piers and abutments in cement, concrete, and brickwork. Jadot's section plan of December 1905 has survived in the Austrian State Archives; it indicates the general dimensions of the "Iron Bridge at Tung Fu Chiao" connecting "the new road of the Austro-Hungarian Concession" and the "Chinese Bund" **(Fig. 33b)** along one of the four proposed tramway lines, more precisely "Line A: From the Tung Fu Chao to the Tientsin Settlement Railway Station on the Main Road crossing the Austro-Hungarian, Italian and Russian Concessions".

The bridge was intended to be under sole Chinese ownership (maintenance included), while freight was to be provided by the Imperial Railway of North China free of Imperial Maritime Custom fees. All necessary facilities for the bridge were to be provided by the Austro-Hungarian and Chinese sides of the bridge, and the Tientsin City Public Works Department had to lend their machines, such as dredger, pile driving engine, boats, and steamroller, free of charge. As regards the bridge and overall tramway deal (the second part included mandatory electric light installations along the tracks and an electric traction overhead system), the typescript, ZKLFKFRQWDLQHGWKLUW\VL[SDUDJUDSKVDQGZDV¿YH page long, bore the following title: "Agreement between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian Governments and the Municipal Authorities of the Austro-Hungarian, Italian and Russian Concessions in Tientsin, represented by Mr E. Ludwig, Austro-Hungarian Acting Consul, Mr G. Chiostri, Italian Consul, Mr N. Laptew, Russian Consul, Chairman of the Russian Municipal Council, on one side; and the *Compagnie de Tramways et d'Éclairage de Tientsin,*  represented by Mr L. Jadot, Engineer and Manager of the said Company, on the other side"; it was PDUNHG ZLWK WKH R൶FLDO VWDPSV RQ 1RYHPEHU 1905 **(Figs. 34a,b)** DQGZDVYDOLG IRUD¿UVWWHUPRI ¿YH\HDUV59 The bridge SURMHFWZDVMRLQWO\¿QDQFHG E\WKH&KLQHVHJRYHUQPHQWWKH%HOJLDQ¿UP (36 %), and Austria-Hungary (27 %).60

The iron swing bridge, together with the tramway system, was inaugurated on 21 November 1906. :KLOH VHFRQGDU\ VRXUFHV PHQWLRQ WKDW<XDQ 6KLNDL himself had taken an active part in the supervision of the project (Shan 2018, 108), Bernauer confessed in his report to the Beijing Legation on the day of the

 <sup>58</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 103 (Settlement Brücke und Tramway 1902/06), Ludwig to Rosthorn, Tientsin 5 October 1905.

 <sup>59</sup> The "Agreement" is attached to the dossier HHStA GesA Peking 103 (Settlement Brücke und Tramway 1902/06).

<sup>60</sup> \$Q HQWU\ RIWKH NN0LQLVWU\ RI&RPPHUFH IURP -DQXDU\ UHFRQ¿UPVWKDW ´WKH SD\DEOH DPRXQW RI IUDQFV ZDV transferred from our settlement for the construction of the bridge to the Compagnie", Austrian State Archives (Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv – Handel, Department 12, China 1907, Fasz. 1058).

**Figs. 33a,b** Draft plan of tramway lines from the Russian sector to the Chinese sectors of Tianjin via the Austro-Hungarian concession, without any section across the Hai River (above); and the basic section plan of the projected bridge, both sent in 1905 by L. Jadot, engineer and manager of the *Compagnie de Tramways*, to the Austro-Hungarian consulate [Austrian State Archives]

RSHQLQJ FHUHPRQ\ WKDW ³9LFHUR\ <XDQ 6NL .ZDL [sic] was absent owing to indisposition, but in his stead the head of the Chinese administration, the lo-FDO &XVWRPV 2൶FHU 7DRWDL /LDQJ ZDV SUHVHQW DV well as all consular representatives, delegations from all the concessions, commanders of the stationed troops, and company directors."61

As a two-page report in the journal *Das Handels-Museums*, edited by the k.u.k. Austrian Trade Museum, put it on 10 January 1907, this "iron swing bridge [*Drehbrücke*] was the new pride of the trans-

 <sup>61</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 103 "Settlement Brücke und Tramway 1902/06" (Bernauer to the Beijing Legation, Tientsin 21 November 1906.

#### 104 Mංർඁൺൾඅ Fൺඅඌൾඋ

**Figs. 34a,b** Agreements and stamps by the contracting parties for the iron swing bridge, namely: the Belgian Tramway Company, the Austro-Hungarian, Italian and Russian parties (above), and the Chinese side (below); signed in Tientsin on 16 November 1905 [Austrian State Archives]

port system of Tientsin […] and opened with a big ceremony in the presence of high Chinese and foreign dignitaries".62 What this infrastructural project meant for the self-understanding of Austria-Hungary's civilising mission in the Far East is easily exem-SOL¿HG WKURXJK D FRXSOH RI KLVWRULFDO DQG VR IDU overlooked illustrations published by Austrian media, from periodicals to postcards.

In its issue of 10 February 1907 on "The Austro-Hungarian Settlement in Tientsin" (cf. Fig. 26b), the aforementioned *Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung* juxtaposed, next to a short comment, a photograph of "The former pontoon bridge, with an Austro-Hungarian marine soldier standing on guard" and the soon-to-be expropriated Chinese huts in the background **(Fig. 35a**, cf. Fig. 20b**)**, with a picture of "The recently opened Austro-Hungarian bridge, connecting the Chinese City with our settlement" **(Fig. 35b)**. This visual 'before-and-after Western-impact narrative' gradually condensed into a certain iconicity of Austrian progress and orderliness when hand-coloured postcards, such as those showing the "Austrian bridge — Tientsin" (cf. Krasser 2015, 52), or other street scenes with the tramway tracks, circulated around the globe **(Figs. 36a–c)**.

Finally, this "Austrian bridge" (*nota bene*: 73 % RILWVFRVWZDV¿QDQFHG E\*non*-Austrian stakeholders) became a constant feature in almost all city guides or 'best-of' illustrated overviews with their 'must-see' canon of Western achievements in Tientsin. Examples include the *Astor House Hotel Guide to Tientsin* (Astor 1907, 13), *The China Times Guide to Tientsin and Neighbourhood* (Burton St. John 1908, 39) or *Cook's Handbook for Tourists to Peking, Tientsin…* (Cook's Handbook 1910, 70). In the 1912 issue on *Northern China* by *Madrolle's Guide Books* series (Madrolle 1912, 59–66), an overall map of Tientsin depicted the tramway line from the railway station in the Russian concession, through the Italian and Austro-Hungarian concessions, over the 'Austrian bridge' and into the Chinese City **(Fig. 37a)**\$Q RIWHQTXRWHG VRXUFH LV 5DVPXVVHQ¶V *Tientsin — An Illustrated History* (Rasmussen 1925, 33, 39, 45), published when Austria had already left the concession for more than ten years. However, the bridge also continued to be an iconic feature of international postcards in the postcolonial period, when its supposed 'Austrian' origin was transcribed into the "Chin Tang Bridge" **(Fig. 37b)**.

#### **3.3. Between wishful thinking, urban planning, and local realities: developing colonial space (1906–11)**

:KLOH WKH ¿UVW UHSUHVHQWDWLYH VWUXFWXUDO DQG YLVXDO markers of the Austro-Hungarian presence in Tientsin, namely, the consulate and the iron swing bridge, were being built, the administrators of the newly established concession were confronted with DFKDOOHQJHWRH൵HFWLYHO\FRQFHLYHLQVWLWXWLRQDOLVH control and physically develop 'their' colonial space. For all occupying forces, the foundation of a permanent, institutionalised management structure was re-TXLUHG DV D ¿UVW VWHS WRZDUGV ³EULQJLQJ RUGHU LQWR FKDRV´LQ³7LDQMLQFRVPRSROLV´6LQJDUDYpORX 113); also in the Austro-Hungarian concession, this meant tackling urban development.

#### <sup>X</sup> **The Hotung Construction Company**

The *Hotung Baugesellschaft (H.B.G.)* [Hotung Construction Company] was created in late 1905. As internal correspondence clearly indicates, Austrian administrators carefully studied and compared the structure and statutes of existing construction companies in the British, French and German concessions. Thus, the statutes of the H.B.G. built on what we may conceptualise as a form of silent inter-concessional transfer of knowledge and expertise; their twelve short paragraphs were discussed, drafted and published in a short brochure in the same year (*Statuten* 1905), but after some internal debates were republished in a slightly revised version in 1908 **(Figs. 38a,b)**. 63

As the *Amtsblatt zur Wiener Zeitung und Zentral-Anzeiger für Handel und Gewerbe* >2൶FLDO Journal supplement to the Vienna Journal and Central Gazette for Trade and Commerce] announced on )HEUXDU\ E\ TXRWLQJ IURPWKH VWDWXWHVWKH H.B.G. was authorised by the k.u.k. Legation in Beijing and founded on 19 December 1905 with its KHDGTXDUWHUV LQ 7LHQWVLQ  ,WV PLVVLRQ ZDV WKH ODQG DFTXLVLWLRQ DQG SURSHUW\ GHYHORSPHQW SXUchase, sale or other exploitation of buildings in the Austro-Hungarian concession, in Tientsin city and

 <sup>62</sup> ,WVFRVWVZHUHHVWLPDWHGDW³.URQHQ>\$XVWULDQFURZQV@´VRPH¼PLOOLRQWRGD\,Q'DV|VWHUUHLFKLVFKXQJDULVFKH6HWWOHment in Tientsin, in: Das Handels-Museum, vol. 22, No. 2 (Vienna 10 January 1907), 13–14. 63 Both versions are stored in HHStA Adm.Reg. F63/1 (Statuten).

**Fig. 35a** The old pontoon bridge to the Austro-Hungarian concession before its replacement by a modern iron bridge, photographed for the *Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung* [Austria's Illustrated Press] of 10 February 1907. [Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung, Vol. 19 (10 February 1907), 451]

**Fig. 35b** The new "Austro-Hungarian Bridge", depicted in the *Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung* [Austria's Illustrated Press] of 10 February 1907. [Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung, Vol. 19 (10 February 1907), 451]

**36a–c** Painted postcards depicting the "Austrian Bridge in Tientsin" (c.1910) and the other end of the concession [Krasser 2015, 52; Wikimedia Commons]

**Fig. 36b**

**Fig. 36a**

**Fig. 36c**

**Fig. 37a** A map published in 1912 in Madrolle's Guide Book series on *Northern China*, already indicating the tramway line: from Tientsin's railway station (in the Russian concession), across the Italian concession, over the new bridge of the Austro-Hungarian concession, and terminating in the Chinese City [Madrolle 1912, no page, between 56 and 57]

**Fig. 37b** A painted postcard from the postcolonial period showing the former Austrian Bridge in Tientsin and indicating the "Chin Tang Bridge and the Metropolitan Police Board, Chinese City, Tientsin" (undated) [Wikimedia Commons]

**Figs. 38a,b** The statutes of the Hotung Construction Company, as published in 1906 and 1908 [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

its surroundings and all related business; further the construction and operation of warehouses (§ 2). The company [was] in operation for an unlimited period  HTXLSSHG ZLWK WDHOV RI VKDUH FDSLWDO (§ 4) and run by an elected gremium with a concrete working agenda (§ § 5–12). Its public announcement jointly signed by its directors, Hugo Accurti and Wen Shou-Feng.64 The H.B.G. directors were originally assisted by Max Hey (from the Imperial Maritime Customs, see introduction by Georg Lehner) and Eduard Andres (k.u.k. consulate secretary) while construction works were led by Johann Brunner (his ORFDOFRQVWUXFWLRQ¿UPKDGDOUHDG\DVVLVWHGLQEXLOGing the consulate, see above) and Rudolf Wipplinger. Other public sources over the years mention a VOLJKWO\ GL൵HUHQW VHWXS RI VL[PHPEHUVWKUHH\$XVtro-Hungarians and three Chinese. Arnold Wright's 1908 *Twentieth Century Impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Other Treaty Ports* (Wright 1908, 749, 751) and *The Directory & Chronicle for China IRU WKH \HDU*  (Hong Kong 1909, 692) listed: "Gino Accurti (general manager), S.F. Wen (co-manager), and the directors Hugo Accurti, Emil 6 )LVFKHU &K¶HQ &KX &KL DQG<XHQ7VX &KHQ´\$ constant source of trouble and complaints (caused by a lack of control mechanisms over some dubious machinations behind the scene, see below), Hugo \$FFXUWL D IRUPHU QDYDO R൶FHU ZKR WRJHWKHU ZLWK his brother Gino, had come to China with the Austrian army during the Boxer Uprising) played a dual UROHEHLQJDOVRWKHFRQFHVVLRQ¶VR൶FLDOVHFUHWDU\<sup>65</sup>

\$VHULHVRIVNHWFKSODQVIURPWKH¿UVW\HDU of the H.B.G. has survived in the Austrian State Archives: between the written lines of accompanying, often lengthy explanations of internal reports between Tientsin, Beijing, Vienna and Budapest, these may be contextualised as a cartographic discourse of visions developing the colonial space of the Austro-Hungarian concession or, more explicitly, as a vio lent planning tool designed to insert the concession into a pre-existing Chinese urban fabric. Building on the aforementioned inventory maps (compare

 <sup>64 &</sup>quot;Hotung Baugesellschaft", in: Amtsblatt zur Wiener Zeitung und Zentral-Anzeiger für Handel und Gewerbe, No. 44 (24 February 6LPLODUQRWL¿FDWLRQVZHUHFLUFXODWHGLQWKH9LHQQHVHSUHVVLQ5HLFKVSRVW1R)HEUXDU\±DQGLQ Neue Freie Presse, No. 15039 (6 July 1906), 22. 65 2QHRIWKHHDUOLHVWVRXUFHVFRQFHUQLQJWKH¿QDQFLDOVWDWXVRIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQZDVVXPPDULVHGE\%HUQDXHULQD

UHSRUWLQ\$SULOTXRWLQJ³7KHUHYHQXHVDQGH[SHQGLWXUHVRIWKHVHWWOHPHQW\$XJXVWWR'HFHPEHUFRPSLOHGE\WKH VHFUHWDU\RIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQLQ7LHQWVLQ´WKLVZDV+XJR\$FFXUWL7KHODWWHUVWDWHGD³OLTXLGFDVKEDODQFH>*Kassarest*] of 28,000 teal (65,000 Austrian crowns)" and a "list of buildings, sorted by business classes [*Geschäftsklassen*] 1 to 3, [comprising of] hotels, restaurants, a pawn shop, a distillery, wine sales, a theatre, a tea room, baths, and opium saloons (increas-LQJIURPWR´++6W\$)%HUQDXHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV\$SULO

**Fig. 39** \$VNHWFKVXUYH\PDSWRLQGLFDWHWKHGL൵HUHQW]RQHVZLWKLQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQOLJKWEOXHFHPHWHU\GDUNEOXH temples and public buildings; yellow: public grounds and private houses; red: Hotung Construction Company) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

Figs. 8a,b with Fig. 31), one plan with an added legend covering the entire concession area **(Fig. 39)** indicated the "former cemetery", "temples and public buildings" — including the local municipal *Yamen* site (used by the Austrian navy and police, see below) next to the local Chinese *Sin Lun Dje* Street (or *Hsin-Lung-Dschie* as it was called in the Klein re-SRUW VHH TXRWH DERYH² DQG ³SXEOLFORWV DQG SULvate houses" (cf. Fig. 14b). Addionally, the "Neue Strasse" [*New Street*], with the building lots of the "Hotung Baugesellschaft" was highlighted in red.

Zooming into the planning area, Arthur von Rosthorn (in his 24 March 1906 report from Beijing to \$JHQRU\*ROXFKRZVNL0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ Vienna) attached two of Hugo Accurti's working PDSV7KH¿UVWPDSLQGLFDWHGWKH³WHQ EORFNVWREH expropriated",66 reserved for the *Hotung Baugesellschaft* along "Neue Straße" between "Bund Straße" and the consulate and so-called *Marine-Grundstück* [navy grounds, which were never developed and neighboured the new market] on the one side, and the dotted line towards the Italian concession to the north on the other side **(Fig. 40a;** cf. the Italian map in Fig. 64**)**. The second map already went one step further: it displayed a vision of twenty-two street blocks to be developed towards the southern border with the Italian concession **(Fig. 40b)**.

Finally, an overall plan of 1906 provides evidence that the projects along the new Baron Czikann Street, the plots reserved for the future (including the "Dschunken Hafen Project" [*junk port project*] near the constantly swamped area towards the railway tracks), and the Chinese urban fabric from the recent past collided over one and the same territory, which was now labelled the "Austro-Hungarian Concession" **(Figs. 41a,b)**.

The Hotung Construction Company's annual reports [*+RWXQJ %DXJHVHOOVFKDIW ± \*HVFKlIWV%Hrichte*], published from 1906 to 1916 **(Figs. 42a–c)**, constitute an important primary source of information on work in progress. By comparing reports of

 <sup>66</sup> HHStA F 63.1 (55), Rosthorn to Goluchowski, 24 March 1906.

**Fig. 40a** Development plan by Hugo Accurti (1906) indicating the various blocks of the H.B.G. building project to the left and right of the new main street [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Fig. 40b** Development plan by Hugo Accurti (1906) indicating all 22 blocks of the projected new urban grid for the Austro-Hungarian concession [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Figs. 41a,b** Development plan (by Hugo Accurti, 1906?) showing the projected new urban grid of the Austro-Hungarian concession ORZHUULJKWVLGHQH[WWRWKHROGHUWUDGLWLRQDO&KLQHVHTXDUWHUVOHIWVLGH>\$XVWULDQ6WDWH\$UFKLYHV9LHQQD@

**Figs. 42a–c** Covers and balance sheet of the Hotung Construction Company "annual reports" [*+RWXQJ%DXJHVHOOVFKDIW±\*HVFKlIWV Berichte*] [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

the period 1906 to 1915, we can see that the greatest DPRXQW RI EXLOGLQJ DFWLYLW\ ZDV LQ WKH ¿UVW WKUHH years, followed by stagnation and a considerable vacancy rate of the built housing stock: between the lines this means that the Austro-Hungarian concession never attracted many international residents; neither did it increase business activity, and the provided structures, from houses to theatres, were hardly accepted by the local Chinese population.67 Additionally, the administration within the H.B.G., which involved the two Accurti brothers sitting for years on both sides of the controlling mechanism, was increasingly considered problematic (see below the legal case around Hugo Accurti and the connected petition).68

#### <sup>X</sup> **Press reactions and PR initiatives**

Despite the representation of these internal visions on circulated maps, political representatives, local players, and informed journalists as well as anonymous authors provided a rather ambivalent range of opinions about the Austro-Hungarian concession's achievements, the challenges it faced, and its future options. On 20 September 1906, *Pester Lloyd* (the largest business-oriented German-language daily newspaper in Hungary's capital, Budapest) published a comment on "Das österreichisch-ungarische Settlement in Tientsin". Far from being enthusiastic, the DQRQ\PRXVZULWHUVWDWHGWKDW³WKHQHZH൵HFWLYHFROR-QLDO SRVVHVVLRQ´ GLG QRW R൵HU DQ RSSRUWXQLW\ EXW rather would "pose a problem for the government, as it simply *did not want to be colonised* by Austrian or Hungarian settlers" [my emphasis]. This had to do ZLWK³DYLFLRXVFLUFOHRILQGL൵HUHQWGRPHVWLFH[SRUW-HUVDQG YHU\LQVX൶FLHQWWUDQVSRUWFRQGLWLRQV´ RQWKH JOREDO VFDOH\$V UHJDUGV JRYHUQPHQWDO H൵RUWVWR GHvelop "our only colonial possession overseas", the list of achievements (which most often were borrowed from foreign third parties) was, however, KLJKOLJKWHG³WKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDTXD\WKHUHJXODtion of the Hai River; the building of a swing bridge; the installation of a water supply system, electricity, and an electric tramway; a new reservoir for the sewer system; the transfer of several thousand Chinese graves;69 and a cadastre". But, the author rightly speculated, "would all these improvement measures [*Meliorationsarbeiten*] just be made for the local

<sup>67</sup> 5HFDOOLQJWKH¿UVW³EXVLQHVV\HDURI´WKH+%\*GHFODUHG³0RZRIDUDEOHODQGLQLWVSRVVHVVLRQRIZKLFKRQO\ Mow were built on [*verbaut*@´RQH0RZHTXDOOLQJP<sup>2</sup> ); the "business year of 1907" indicated a slightly larger ownership of 49581 Mow, newly developed land amounting to 24047 Mow, built-on land totalling 39087 Mow, leaving 10494 Mow for future development [*Verbauung*]. In 1907, the company built: "173 Chien Chinese houses, 49 shops, 4 European houses, 2 hotels and one bath, including a western addition to the market hall", resulting in an overall H.B.G. ownership of "431 Chien Chinese KRXVHVVKRSVWKHDWUHWUDFWVRIPDUNHWKDOO(XURSHDQKRXVHVKRWHOVDQGEDWK´7KHDWWDFKHG³EDODQFH´DQG³SUR¿W and-loss account" was signed by the "supervisory board [*Aufsichtsrat*@(PLO6)LVFKHU+XJR\$FFXUWL&KHQ7VX&KLDQG<XHQ6X Cheng" and the "directorate [*Direktion*] Gino Accurti and Wen Sho Fang" (Hotung Baugesellschaft 1908). The report for the ³EXVLQHVV\HDURIVLJQHGE\WKHVXSHUYLVRU\ERDUG+\$FFXUWL(PLO6)LVFKHU&KHQ7VX&KLDQG<XHQ6X&KHQJ´DQGWKH "directorate Hugo Accurti, Gino Accurti and Wen Sho Fang", indicated a land ownership of 55582 Mow and the following newly built structures: "1 Chinese hotel, 1 pawn shop, 1 Chinese restaurant and 12 Chien Chinese houses", totalling a building stock [*Besitzstand der Bauten*] of "547 Chinese houses (60 empty), 93 shops (23 empty), 2 theatres, 1 market hall, 10 two-storey houses (6 empty), 4 European houses (1 empty), 3 hotels, 1 bath, 1 European restaurant (1 empty), 1 bowling alley with 2 billiard rooms, 1 pawn shop and 1 Chinese restaurant" (Hotung Baugesellschaft 1910). The "Business Report about the ninth business year of ´WKH \HDU ZKHQ:RUOG:DU , EURNH RXW VLJQHG E\WKH ³VXSHUYLVRU\ ERDUG \*%RXUERXORQ (PLO 6 )LVFKHU DQG<XHQ 6X Cheng" and the "directorate Hugo Accurti and Wen Sho Fang", stated that the H.B.G. owned "55013 Mow, with 46963 Mow of already built-on land [*verbauter Boden*]"; it listed a building stock of "502 Tien Chinese houses (71 empty), 92 shops (12 empty) DQGWZRVWRUH\KRPHVHPSW\´DQGUHSRUWHG³7LHQ&KLQHVHKRXVHVEHLQJGHPROLVKHGWKHJURXQGVRIZKLFKEHLQJLQ¿OOHG to the new street level and developed with 22 new Tien houses and one hotel" (Hotung Baugesellschaft 1915). The "Business Re-SRUWDERXWWKHHOHYHQWKEXVLQHVV\HDURI´VLJQHGE\WKHVXSHUYLVRU\ERDUG\*%RXUERXORQ(PLO6)LVFKHUSHUSUR<XHQ6X Cheng" and the "directorate Hugo Accurti and Wang His Wu", indicated "no new construction activities and no changes in land RZQHUVKLS´OLVWHG³7LHQ&KLQHVHKRXVHVHPSW\DQGVKRSVHPSW\´DQGUHSRUWHG³DQHWSUR¿W>*Reingewinn*] of

<sup>16,126</sup> Tls" (Hotung Baugesellschaft 1917). 68 \$FRPPHQWIURP-XQHODEHOOHGDV³SULYDWHDQGFRQ¿GHQWLDO´E\LWVDXWKRU(PLO(UZLQ5LWWHUYRQ=DFK&RQVXOIRUWKH7LHQtsin concession in 1908), described Hugo Accuti's double role as "strange conditions between the secretariat of our settlement in 7LHQWVLQDQGWKHGLUHFWRUDWHRIWKH+%\*´DQGHYHQVSRNHRI³LQFUHDVLQJFRPSODLQWVDERXWWKHµ\$FFXUWL&OLTXH¶´++6W\$) E. Zach to "Hochverehrter Herr Minister", Hongkong, 17 June 1908). 69 As regards this challenge, Ludwig gradually revised § 8 of the concession treaty of 1902 (see above) because the originally prom-

LVHG³UHPXQHUDWLRQIRUWKHUHPRYDORISXEOLFJUDYHVRIWDHOVSHUFR൶Q´EHFDPHDWRRFRVWO\D൵DLU2QHGLVSXWHGFDVHZDVWKH EXULDO SODFH RIWKHLQÀXHQWLDO³7VX )DPLO\ZLWK LGHQWL¿HGFR൶QV DORQHWRWDOOLQJ 7OV RI UHPXQHUDWLRQ´D VXPZKLFK Ludwig judged "intolerable for the k.u.k. government" (HHStA GesA Peking 104 (Settlement), Ludwig, Tientsin 8 June 1905 (QWVFKlGLJXQJ)ULHGKRI\*UlEHUIHOG

Chinese population?" and he hinted at Austria's supposedly less imperialistic, even disinterested "role as a friend and benevolent advisor" of "China as a world empire of peace".70 Shortly after, this comment was republished by the important *Österreichische Monatszeitschrift für den Orient* [Austrian Monthly Journal for the Orient, hereafter *Monatszeitschrift*] which had, since the 1870s, regularly informed its Austrian readership about the 'Orient', ranging all the way from Serbia to East Asia — China's Tientsin and Japan included.71

In the 3 January 1907 issue of *Pester Lloyd* (republished a week later in *Das Handels-Museum*) Emil S. Fischer, owner of the only Austrian trading house in Tientsin, reported "About our Chinese settlement". Listing again the above-mentioned projects, his inventory of Austro-Hungarian achieve-PHQWV VRXQGHG UDWKHU OLNH D FRORQLDO JHQWUL¿FDWLRQ project in favour of new Chinese inhabitants (and not, as one might expect, of incoming Austro-Hungarians or other Europeans): "When Austria-Hungary took over seven tenths of a square kilometre after the Boxer Uprising in 1900, it was just a site of poorly looking Chinese huts where day labourers resided who worked in the Chinese City. […] Today there is no such populace in huts [*Hüttenbevölkerung*] anymore in the Austro-Hungarian settlement. It moved away completely; one has created space for beautiful, mostly new premises in which rich and wealthy Chinese lodge." What this actually meant, as explained in the *Monatszeitschrift* in its July 1907 issue, was that "the Austro-Hungarian concession was without a doubt the only one to provide a budg et surplus in its administration system, owing to this numerous, tax-paying Chinese population". Further, Fischer referred to an economic phenomenon (the global relevance of which could not be more topical given present-day trade wars with China): the lack of a coherent "brand and trademark protection [*Markenschutz*], which should follow strict conventions on the basis of fair reciprocity" for European, and here he meant Austrian, export products for the Chinese market (Fischer 1907a). In the same year, Fischer turned in a "Top Secret" *Promemoria* report to the k.u.k. Foreign Ministry as regards a potential (and never granted) loan to develop the concession. With an attached map of Tientsin dating from 1900, Fischer highlighted, along with the other Concession Powers further south, the "Cheng-Li – Chinesenstadt, 1 Million Seelen" ("Chinese City – 1 million inhabitants") to the west, and the "Austro-Hungarian Concession – Hotung" to the east (Fischer 1907b) **(Fig. 43).**

In the meantime, political lobbying work for the Austro-Hungarian concession was also taking place back in Vienna, where the former interim Consul for Tientsin (1905–06), Ernst Ludwig, held a speech in front of the *Österreichisch-Ungarische Export-Verein* [Austro-Hungarian Export Association] on 10 April 1907. To begin with, Ludwig retold the story of the 1901 occupation of the territory, its geographi-FDOO\DGYDQWDJHRXVSRVLWLRQDWWKHFRQÀXHQFHRIWKH Hai and Pei Rivers, and recent achievements such as the iron bridge, which was supposedly "used by some 100.000 pedestrians per day". What followed in his speech provides a good example of how colonising powers in Tientsin underlined their shared civilising mission through the notion of "hygienic modernity" (after Rogaski 2000, 200472) or, even, of a "hygienic revolution" (Singaravélou 2017, 207–37) for the city and its Chinese population. Besides partial regulation of the river, quay installations, widening of the concession's main streets, and a partial levelling of the terrain, Ludwig explored what he called *his* "hygienic point of view": it comprised "a removal of *c.*7000 graves from the terrain of the settlement, the existence of which would certainly irritate European inhabitants within the settlement; the sewerage system with pumps towards new reservoir DJDLQVWÀRRGLQJ73 and a contract with a [British] water network company for the supply of good drinking and cooking water" (Ludwig 1907, 221). All this

 <sup>70 &</sup>quot;Das österreichisch-ungarische Settlement in Tientsin (Budapest, 19 September)", in: Pester Lloyd, No. 230 (20 September 1906), 2–3. 71 In issue 10 of 15 October 1885 Lorenz von Stein had already reported "About the settlements in East Asia and their legal rela-

tions" (215–18, 241–44); issue 3 (March 1901) featured "Austria-Hungary's occupation of a territory for its upcoming settlement" (33), while the issues 5 (May 1901), 10 (October 1901), 4 (April 1905) and 12 (December 1905) had focussed on economic developments in Tientsin. 72 "Personal hygiene and public health administration had become markers of civilization and modernity in the context of high

imperi alism" (Rogaski 2004, 167). 73 7KHJUHDWUHOHYDQFHRIWKLVSURSRVDOEHFDPHHYLGHQWLQWKHJUHDWÀRRGGLVDVWHURIWKHGHVWUXFWLYHDIWHUH൵HFWVRIZKLFKLQWKH

<sup>\$</sup>XVWUR+XQJDULDQDQG,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQVZHUHODWHUGRFXPHQWHGLQWKHR൶FLDOUHSRUWDQGLWVODUJHSKRWRJUDSKLFDOEXPVHHWKH appendix to this publication).

**Fig. 43** The map sent by Emil S. Fischer in December 1907 to the k.u.k. Foreign Ministry as regards a possible loan to develop the Austro-Hungarian concession [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

also aimed to convince the investors present to become involved in a plan to build a (never realised) "port for Chinese junks [*Dschunkenhafen*] to the north of the concession" (cf. Fig. 41a).

Ludwig's typically colonial self-praise was, however, followed by an astonishing confession and accusation:

In this sense our settlement is not the heap of dirt [*Schmutzhaufen*] anymore as we found it before we occupied the land, but on the best way to become a modern polity with all necessary elements which should characterise an overseas' colony. However, its main feature is still missing, namely, Austrian and Hungarian colonists. […] It is not a settlement in the proper meaning of the word, because there is no real interest for it back home. In any case, this is very sad and an evidence of incapacity [*Armutszeugnis*], which our domestic exporters and commercial circles issue for themselves (Ludwig 1907, 222).

International concessions like Shanghai or Tientsin, with their global mix of architectural languages, were often related to temporarily installed *rues des nations* at World's Fairs — an *ephemeral* format of global trade, national prestige competition, and 'spectacular' installations at the local level that had EHHQ XVHG VLQFH WKH ¿UVW VXFK HYHQW LQ /RQGRQ (1851) and peaked with the Paris *Exposition Universelle* in 1900 (Singaravélou 2017, 11; Marinelli 2010a). In Tientsin, these ephemeral 'streets of all nations' putting the "world-on-exhibition" (cf. Mitchell 1989) were transferred into a solid, permanent set-up, not only in architectural and urbanistic terms, but also institutionally and logistically, amounting to a veritable process of global 'back-translation': while Austria itself had also hosted one of these temporary global trade shows, the Vienna *Welt-Ausstellung* of 1873 (see in Georg Lehner's introduction, Figs. 3–5), now, some thirty years later, Ludwig wished to bring Austrian and Hungarian export products to international and Chinese customers, and place them on an unquestionably *permanent* display in Tientsin. Like the Taussig Company had already proposed in 1903,74 he pledged for the "installation of a permanent museum or sample collection [*Mustercomptoir*]75" inside the Austro-Hungarian concession, to be managed by a dedicated "import-export company", with a printed "catalogue for the orientation" of buyers of Austria-Hungary's product range and the option (which at the time was high-tech) of "instant order-LQJ YLDDQLQVWDOOHGWHOHJUDSKLFFRGH´ IURP¿UPVLQ the motherland (Ludwig 1907, 236–7).

Shortly after Ludwig, the vice-president of the Association of Austrian Exporters [*Verband Österreichischer Exporteure*], Hugo Schwer, expressed a similar vision, though with even more enthusiasm, wishing to link the supposed success story of the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin with "a better promotion of our national products [by] staging an Austrian industries exhibition in the most important trade centre of China, namely, Shanghai":

The administration of our Settlement in Tientsin is acknowledged by both the Chinese authorities and the Chinese population as perfectly functioning, and this small piece of Austria-Hungary in the Far East is developing towards a bright future, thanks to the focused and tireless work of the consuls Dr. Carl Bernauer and Ernst Ludwig, as well as of the head of administration, former lieutenant Hugo Accurti (Schwer 1907, 15).76

 <sup>74</sup> In a letter dated 31 October 1903, Gottlieb Taussig, *k.u.k. Hof-Parfumeur* from Vienna, proposed a "*Warenmusterlager* for the export relation in East Asia, on 400 m2 , in connection with his Taussig Company site in the concession, built by "architect Kowarski, presently in China" (HHStA A.R. F8/242 (Konsulatsitze, Tientsin)). 75 It is interesting to note that the idea to install sample collections of Austrian export goods in Tientsin had its equivalent in Vienna,

where "Exposituren" (collections of import articles on display) were part of the *Handelsmuseum* (Trade Museum), which itself came into being after the Vienna Universal Exhibition of 1873 (see the introduction by Georg Lehner). It was systematically extended with a collection of Oriental arts and craft ("Orientalische Kunstgewerbesammlungen"), formed the basis of a planned *Oriental Museum* (with a "Chinese collection [being recognized] as the most complete and comprehensive one in Europe") and in 1907 was merged with the *Wiener Exportverein* (Viennese Export Association) (Handelsmuseum 1919, 7, 22). It was the association where Ludwig held his speech in 1907 (see above). The above-mentioned "Exposituren" were, from 1905, set up for suitable "sales agents for Austrian export" from Constantinople to Cairo and, after 1911, also in Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Yokohama but seemingly not in Tientsin (Griesmayr 1968, 2002–4; cf. Gruber 2013). Between 1916 and 1918, the *k. k. österreichische Orient- und Überseegesellschaft* (Imperial and Royal Austrian Oriental and Overseas Society) was created under the patronage of

Emperor Karl, but the imagined colonial possessions never materialised. 76 The excerpt is stored in the Austrian General Administration Archive, Handel, Department 12, China 1907 (Fasc. 1058).

#### <sup>X</sup> **The Municipal Council and the Concession Regulations**

The next important step towards giving the colonial space of the Austro-Hungarian concession an institutionalised structure was the foundation of a representative municipal council [*Gemeinderat*] in 1908, a decision that was reported on in newspapers such as *China Times* (26 September 1908) or *Shanghai Mercury* (1 October 1908).77 Conceived as a mediating element between the political administration and the Hotung Construction Company, the council originally counted eight members who were appointed by the consul: four Austro-Hungarians and four Chi-QHVH 7KH ¿UVW VHVVLRQ FRQYHQHG LQ DXWXPQ and the four Austrian members were, as the *Austrian Monthly Journal for the Orient* reported, Franz Bauer, Johann Brunner, Dr. Rudolf Civranek, and Emil S. Fischer.78 Wilhelm Ritter von Storck, then secretary of the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing, reported to Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, since NXN0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQDLQ a letter dated 8 September 1908, added two foreigners to the list, and also explained the four Chinese representatives.79

In the global process of 'back-translating' and hybridising governing styles and administrative standards from all over the world into Tientsin, the Austro-Hungarian concession followed similar schemes for comparable institutional bodies from its European motherland, as well as merging other colonial concepts from the wider East Asian sphere into it. In WKLVVSHFL¿FFDVHLQWHUQDOGRFXPHQWVRIZULWWHQOHWters together with attached original primary sources of the time prove that the most recent version of an Austrian municipal code [*Gemeindeordnung*], the one developed by Carinthia's new provincial capital (Klagenfurt), was used as an organisational blueprint, while the Austro-Hungarian actors carefully studied already existing regulations, plans and urban development schemes of/for other concessions, such as Chefoo or Shanghai in China or Russian Dalny/ Dalian.80

The Concession Regulation [*Niederlassungsreglement*] was drafted by Bernauer in 1903, but issued only in October 1908, printed and circulated in the three languages of German, Hungarian and Chinese **(Fig. 44)**. 81

It soon became clear that the whole mechanism ZDVGL൶FXOWWREHPDQDJHGE\WKHIDUWRRIHZ\$XVtro-Hungarian residents in the concession. If anything, Austro-Hungarian nationals tended to live in the far more popular French and British concession zones.82 The "Regulations" were then also distributed in 1909 in the Austrian *Monatszeitschrift* and were divided into four sections: land-use [*Landregulationen*], administration [*Verwaltung*], policing [*Handhabung der Ortspolizei*], and fees/taxes [*Abgaben*]. Annex A covered the "Order concerning the policing of streets, security, market and morality and health standards [*Ordnung bezüglich der Straßen-, Sicherheits-, Markt-, Sittlichkeits- und Sanitätspolizei*]". After directives concerning cleanliness on the VWUHHWV DQG ¿UH VHFXULW\ DQG DJDLQVW JDPEOLQJ KDOOV DQG FRUUXSWLRQ WKH ¿QDO UHPDUNV FRQFHUQHG WKH "codes of conduct [and] preventive measures against human infectious and epizootic diseases".84 Annex B, "Building regulations [*Bauordnung*]", was di-YLGHGLQWRWZRVHFWLRQV7KH¿UVWRQHHQWLWOHG³1HZ buildings and repair work [*Neubauten und Reparaturen*]", covered building permits; property rights;

 <sup>77</sup> Paper clippings were collected and commented about by the consulate in Tientsin, see HHStA GesA Peking 101.

 <sup>78 &</sup>quot;Miszellen — Österreichisch-ungarische Niederlassung in Tientsin", in: OMO, 1 (January 1910), 7.

 <sup>79</sup> Von Storck organized his list into three sections: "A – Members of the Monarchy: Franz Bauer, shareholder of the H.B.G., accountant of the Ching Ching Mining Stock Company and First Lieutenant of the reserve; Johann Brunner, plot and house owner in the settlement, sales representative of machine factories; Emil S. Fischer, landowner in the settlement, owner of the Company Fischer &R%±)RUHLJQ&LWL]HQV\$OEHUW\*UpJRLUHGLUHFWRURIWKH7UDPZD\&RPSDQ\SORWDQGKRXVHRZQHULQWKHVHWWOHPHQW%HOJLDQ -HDQ2¶1HLOOSULQFLSDOVKDUHKROGHURIWKH+%\*PHPEHURIWKH)UHQFKPXQLFLSDOFRXQFLO)UHQFKSUHYLRXVO\QDY\R൶FHU&± &KLQHVH&KX<X+DQRZQHURIKRXVHVDQGDGLVWLOOHU\+R&KXQ7DQRZQHURIKRXVHVDQGDKRWHO&KLQHVH7DRWDL/L7XQ.DQQ KRXVHRZQHUDQGKROGHURIDSDZQVKRS)HQJ<K)XKRXVHRZQHUDQGVKRSNHHSHU´++6W\$)6WRUFNWR\$HKUHQWKDO Beijing 8 September 1908). 80 Plans and printed regulations of these cities are found in HHStA GesA Peking 101.

 <sup>81</sup> HHStA Adm.Reg. F63/1 Niederlassungsreglement of 1 October 1908, also discussed in Hörtler 1984, I:48–55.

 <sup>82</sup> In 1905, the Chinese population in Tientsin numbered approx. 750.000 people against 4000 foreigners, with about 700 British civilians far outnumbering some sixty Austro-Hungarian civilians (Hörtler 1984, I:108). 83 "Das Österreichisch-Ungarische Settlement in Tientsin", in: OMO, No. 2 (February 1909), 26–29.

 <sup>84</sup> The relevance of such measures, designed to control the hygienic standards of food markets in relation to human infectious and epizootic diseases, may be critically discussed once again in the context of the present Covid-19 pandemic, which originated in late 2019 at a wildlife market in the Chinese city of Wuhan.

**Fig. 44** The Regulations of the Austro-Hungarian concession, printed in 1908 in German, Hungarian and Chinese [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

building taxes; compulsory street and building alignment; inner courtyard levels and drainage; the obligation to build only with brick, stone, or cement DORQJ ODUJH VWUHHWV WKH HUHFWLRQ RI ¿UH ZDOOV DQG special regulations for warehouses, factories, and theatres. The second section, entitled "Existing houses", declared that "dilapidated or poorly built mud houses were to be renovated or demolished, [and] those facing large streets be replaced with ce-PHQWRUEULFNKRXVHVZLWKLQDQR൶FLDOO\GHWHUPLQHG SHULRG´)XUWKHU³QHZO\DFTXLUHGEXLOGLQJSORWVKDG to be developed within three years, or a contractual penalty would be issued".

Although these regulations were meant to steer the gradual modernisation of pre-concession Chinese building stock according to Western standards, internal and published reports prove that the economic development of the Austro-Hungarian concession faltered from 1909 onwards. A rather gloomy picture was painted in the 1912 Annual Report of the *Neue*  *Wiener Handelsakademie* [New Viennese Commer-FLDO \$FDGHP\@ LQ 2WWRNDU 1HPHþHN¶V HLJKWSDJH summary: "Das österreichisch-ungarische Settlement in Tientsin". Even if the local "population stratum with its mid- and small-range business activities, and some larger industrial companies like a 'Kaoling distillery' [he probably meant a sorghum/*gaoliang* distillery, MF], weaving mills, dye houses, fabric and FKHPLFDOVWRUHV´ZHUHSUHVHQW³QRH൵RUWV´KDGEHHQ PDGH E\\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ ¿UPV WR GHYHORS µWKHLU¶ concession — except by "the only Austrian industrialist, the soap manufacturer Gottlieb Taussig" 1HPHþHN ± &HUWDLQO\ ODWHU VWDWHments in the *Monatszeitschrift* about riots and executions in Tientsin (in 1912, the year when the Chinese Republic was founded) suggest that business had failed to gain any positive momentum by 1914, when World War I brought about a new situation (see below).85

 <sup>85</sup> The April 1909 issue of the *Monatszeitschrift für den Orient* reported a "dismal business situation [*trostlose Geschäftslage*]*"* both as regards Austrian imports and within local Chinese trading ("Tientsin im Jahre 1908", in: OMO, No. 4 (April 1909), 38). In the journal's June 1910 issue, a short announcement was even grimmer: Chinese tax income decreased through a "stagnation of trad-LQJ´ WKH IUHTXHQWDWLRQ RI WKH FRQFHVVLRQ¶V ³PDLQ VWUHHW ZLWK LWV HQWHUWDLQPHQW YHQXHV >*Vergnügungsetablissements*]" by less wealthy Chinese and "the competition with more popular attractions in the neighbouring Japanese concession". Additionally, the commitment of the Austro-Hungarian members within the *Gemeinderat* decreased ("Miszellen — Österreichisch-ungarisches Settlement in Tientsin", in: OMO, No. 6 (June 1910), 66–7). The December 1910 issue spoke of "indebted Chinese dealers", while a 1912 entry on *Tientsin* UHSRUWHGRQ³KDOWLQJWUDGHDQGWUD൶F´DQG³H[HFXWLRQVRIPXWLQHHUVDQGORRWHUV´:KHQ1HPHþHNUHZRUNHG his aforementioned paper of 1912 for his contribution "Austro-Hungary's colonial interests" in the May 1915 issue of the Vien-

**Fig. 45** 7KH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQGLYLGHGLQWRIRXUGL൵HUHQWWD[DWLRQ]RQHV>*Klassen*] and their subzones [*Unter-Klassen*], map of 1908. [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

#### <sup>X</sup> **Implementation: taxation, expropriation and smaller individual projects**

Reacting to the concession contract of 1902, with its XQFOHDU OHJDO GH¿QLWLRQV RI ODQG DFTXLVLWLRQ H[SURpriation and remuneration (see above; cf. Hörtler 1984, I: 78–84) and in the context of the statutes of the H.B.G. and the concession regulations of 1908, the overall construction area of the Austro-Hungarian concession was segmented into four main building and taxation zones (and three 'sub-classes') **(Fig. 45)**. Like the system applied in the neighbouring Italian concession, the borderlines of this topographi-FDO SDWWHUQ GLG QRW UHÀHFW DQ\ORFDOLUUHJXODULWLHV RI local urban and building structures, but ran parallel to the north-western curved riverbank and were differentiated into "high land, middle land, lowland and land submerged by water".86 Under this logic, parcels closer to the river were assessed as more valuable owing to their easier access to infrastructure for waterborne transport.

Apart from this rather rigorous dealing with the territory, its topography, and the local inhabitants through the single lens of rather technocratic development schemes, other voices were concerned about the lack of local legitimation of Austria-Hungary. As Eugen Ritter von Kuczynski, minister in the k.u.k. Beijing legation between 1905 and 1911, stated in a report in December 1909 to the Ministry of Foreign \$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQDPRUHVKRXOGEHGRQHIRUWKH&KLnese population since it was the "main taxpayer in WKHFRQFHVVLRQ´DQGWKHYLVLEOH³LQGL൵HUHQFHRIWKH local circles of our Chinese *pied à terre*" could only be counteracted with "a proof of goodwill and interest" on the Austrian side. What he was aiming for here was the "foundation of a public Chinese elementary school", a draft isometric plan of which was

nese *Cartographic Journal*, his disenchanted tone had not changed considerably. As World War I had already started, he was well aware of the "approaching upheavals of the territorial possessions of the world powers", but what he meant with "the cultural-geographic life interests of our fatherland" still included the "Austro-Hungarian settlement of Tientsin, as an everlasting *Niederlassung*LQ&KLQD´1HPHþHN\$WWKLVSRLQWLQ&KLQDKDGQRW\HWGHFODUHGZDUWRWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ0RQDU-FK\EXWWKLVFKDQJHGLQ²ZLWKGUDPDWLFH൵HFWVVHHEHORZ

 <sup>86</sup> HHStA A.R. F 63/1, attachment to the report, Storck, 22 February 1908.

**Fig. 46** Drawing of the planned Chinese elementary school (later called "Charity School"), c.1909 [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

already attached to the report **(Fig. 46)**. 87 The school ZDV LQGHHG EXLOW DQG GHSLFWHG LQ WKH EHORZTXRWHG photographic album of 1911 (see Appendix, Figs. 55–56), where it was described as a "charity school [*Armenschule*] with a planned extension to receive some 200 pupils in four classes, including regular HYHQLQJ\*HUPDQFRXUVHVR൵HUHGE\WKHNXNLQWHUpreter Li" (Anonymous 1911, n.p.).

With the new acting consul, Miroslav Kobr (1908–12), some intriguing codes of conduct were issued, such as the 1908 "Regulations restraining the owners of dogs in the Austro-Hungarian concession" **(Fig. 47)**.

In the meantime, the consulate complex was con-VWDQWO\ PRGL¿HG EHWZHHQ DQG XQIRUWXnately, no interior photographs could be located for this study) because existing rooms needed to be converted for private reasons,88 PRUH R൶FH VSDFH ZDV FUHDWHG IRU DGPLQLVWUDWLYH VWD൵89 the open loggias were considered "useless", closed, and converted into interior space,90 and some renovations necessi-WDWHGVWUXFWXUDOPRGL¿FDWLRQVZKLFKZHUHFRQFHLYHG and carried out by engineer J. Brunner **(Figs. 48a–d)** 2ZLQJ WR WKHVH FRQVWDQW PRGL¿FDWLRQV RI the consulate buildings, the architectural appearance of the remaining structure today is very hard to date (cf. Figs. 80a–c).

Archival material shows a new impetus for the FRQVROLGDWLRQ RI WKH TXD\V DORQJ WKH ULYHU LQ -XQH 1911. One sketch by the civil engineer Bruno Moser has survived; it showed the increasing (and then dredged out) alluvial deposit between small loading ramps along the river and around the iron swing bridge **(Fig. 49)**; Moser also drafted a proposal for PRUH UH¿QHG TXD\ FRQVWUXFWLRQVWRZDUGVWKH ,WDOLDQ concession **(Fig. 50)**. Most probably, this project ZDV VWRSSHG RZLQJ WR ÀRRGLQJ LQ ODWH VXPPHU RI that year (see below).91

Finally, one project within the Austro-Hungarian concession needs to be mentioned here, even if it ZDVDQXQVROYHGLVVXHIURPWKHVWDUWDQGH൵HFWLYHO\ until the last days of the Austrian presence in Tianjin: structures for the Austrian navy. While the proposal by the k.u.k. War Ministry to construct new military barracks and comments about the "mostly unusable and ugly conditions" and the "highly alarming sanitary problems of the used structures of the *Hauptetappe in Tientsin*" can be traced back in correspondence material dating from 1904 (although neither plans nor photographs could be located),92

<sup>87</sup> ++6W\$)5LWWHUYRQ.XF]\QVNLWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV%HLMLQJ'HFHPEHU7KHFRVWHVWLPDWHIRU the construction itself was some 4100 Mexican dollars, to which he added some 1000 Mexican dollars for furnishings and an Aus-WULDQ EXW )UHQFKODQJXDJH ³LOOXVWUDWHG FDWDORJXH RI WHDFKLQJ PDWHULDO´ 3LFKOHU  DQG HYHQ FRPPHQWHG RQ WKH R൵HUHG courses, such as geography and German. 88 ++6W\$\$5).REUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ6HSWHPEHU

 <sup>89</sup> ++6W\$\$5).REUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ2FWREHU

 <sup>90</sup> ++6W\$\$5).REUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV0D\0DUFKDQG1RYHPEHU

 <sup>91</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 102 (Settlement – Quaibauten), Stumvoll to von Storck, Tientsin 8 June and 5 July 1911; and HHStA F63.3 5HSRUWDERXWRXUTXD\FRQVWUXFWLRQV7LHQWVLQ-XQH

 <sup>92</sup> Carl Bernauer reported in October 1904 about the "old temple" and "its use by the navy after the construction of the barracks or the administration of the settlement" (HHStA A.R. F8/241 (22), Bernauer from Tientsin 3 October 1904).


**Fig. 47** "Regulations restraining the owners of dogs in the Austro-Hungarian concession" (1908) [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Figs. 48a,b** \*URXQGÀRRUDQG¿UVWÀRRURIWKHFRQVXODWHEXLOGLQJGUDZQLQGXULQJSUHVXPHGPRGL¿FDtions [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Figs. 48c,d** \*URXQGÀRRURIWKHFRQVXODWHEXLOGLQJGUDZQLQ GXULQJSUHVXPHGPRGL¿FDWLRQVDERYHJURXQGÀRRURI the consulate annex building, drawn in 1912 for planned PRGL¿FDWLRQVEHORZ>\$XVWULDQ6WDWH\$UFKLYHV9LHQQD@

**Fig. 49** Analytical sketch by civil engineer Bruno Moser (1911) explaining the alluvial soil deposits around the iron swing bridge [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Fig. 50** 1HZTXD\FRQVWUXFWLRQVFRQFHLYHGDQGGUDIWHGE\FLYLOHQJLQHHU%UXQR0RVHU [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

#### 126 Mංർඁൺൾඅ Fൺඅඌൾඋ

**Fig. 51a** 3ODQRIWKH<DPHQVLWHLQ&KLQHVHTXDUWHURIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQVLJQHG³.6FKLHQHU´>\$XVWULDQ6WDWH Archives, Vienna]

evidence of the presence of the Austro-Hungarian navy detachment [*Marinedetachment*] in the Chinese municipal *yamen* complex only dates back to 1911; it was supposedly used until 1910 by the local administration and then handed over (compare with )LJEZKHUH³)D)RX6L%DUUDFNV´DQGWKH³2൶ cers' yamen" are indicated on the opposite side; see Fig. 54b with the precise indication of "municipality building"). In April 1912, a series of documents circulated between Tianjin, Beijing and Vienna as regards an overdue "sanitary report" [*Sanitätsbericht*] FRQFHUQLQJWKH ³WZR FKLHIV RI VWD൵ PDULQHV municipal employees and seven coolies" installed in the "old temple complex whose dilapidated condition [was considered] beyond any adaptation [or] inner reconstruction".937ZRGL൵HUHQWJURXQGSODQVH[ ist about the "yamen site": one plan (signed by the head of police "K. Schiener, 1912") situates the complex within the larger urban fabric along the Chinese main street to the right (south), with ³<DPHQVWUDVVH´ LQ WKH ORZHU VHFWLRQ RI WKH SODQ (west) and a dense row of small Chinese houses to the left (north) **(Fig. 51a**, cf. the larger map in Fig. 54a**)**, while an astonishingly precise "Sketch plan of the present spatial distribution" (most probably by the signing evaluator of the sanitary report of 1912) indicates the full programme of the rooms around the open courtyard, with its two-storeyed entry to the south and two smaller structures (washrooms and toilets in the centre) **(Fig. 51b)**.

Historical photographs have survived in the Austrian State Archives (Graphic Collections of the War \$UFKLYHVWKH\VKRZ\$XVWULDQQDY\R൶FHUVDQGPDrines, as well as Chinese policemen in and around WKHD൵HFWHG VWUXFWXUHVWKH SUHFLVHFRQWH[W RIZKLFK could not exactly be determined **(Figs. 52a-g**, compare with Szuk's, Klein's and Holy's visits between 1903 and 1909, Figs. 17–19**)**.

<sup>93</sup> ++6W\$ \*HV\$ 3HNLQJ 0LOLWlUTXDUWLHU7LHQWVLQ.REUWR%HLMLQJ GHOHJDWLRQ ³FRQFHUQLQJWKHOLYLQJ FRQGLWLRQV RIWKHPDULQH detachment", 3, 12 and 17 April 1912.

**Fig. 51b** 'HWDLOHGSODQRIWKH<DPHQVLWHLQ&KLQHVHTXDUWHURIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQF [Austrian State Archives, Vienna]

**Figs. 52a,b** 3KRWRJUDSKV XQGDWHG ODEHOOHG RQ WKH EDFN DV ³<DPHQ RI WKH \$XVWULDQ GHWDFKPHQW LQ 7LHQWVLQ´ (above) and "Street scene in the Austro-Hungarian settlement, [sergeant] Homayr" [Austrian State Archives, Photo graphic Collection of the War Archive]

**Figs. 52c,d** Photographs (undated), labelled on the back as "Our Austrian detachment in Tientsin" (above; *nota bene*, the Austrian ÀDJDQG³OLYLQJTXDUWHUV>*Mannschaftswohnungen*]" [Austrian State Archives, Photographic Collection of the War Archive]

**Figs. 52e-g** Photographs (undated), most probably in and around the Austrian marines and police station [Austrian State Archives, Photographic Collection of the War Archive]

#### **7KHÀRRGGLVDVWHURIDQGLWV rediscovered documentation**

\$ VPDOO ¿OH FRQWDLQLQJ ZULWWHQ LQWHUQDO UHSRUWV DQG R൶FLDO SUHVV FRYHUDJH KDV EHHQ IRXQG LQ WKH\$XVtrian State Archives;94 it covers the arguably most decisive event during the short period of \$XVWULD+XQJDU\¶VSUHVHQFHLQ7LDQMLQWKHÀRRGGLsaster of 30 August 1911. According to a note on 2 September by Felix Stumvoll, Consul of the Austro-Hungarian concession in 1911, "heavy rain and a typhoon started in the afternoon of 29 August and lasted "some thirty hours as a non-stop tempest". This led, as summarised by the provisional concession secretary Mitura one day after the incident, to a "colossal accumulation of a mass of water on the side of the Italian settlement near our border that FRXOGQRWGUDLQR൵WKURXJKWKHRXWOHWXQGHU9LD9LWtorio Emanuele towards the 'disputed land'. This resulted in the water mass spilling over the higher border area and two streams towards the collection tank RIRXUVHWWOHPHQWZKLFKZDV¿OOHGXSLQWKHVKRUWHVW amount of time". According to the report by our FKLHI RI SROLFH . 6FKLHQHU ³WKH ÀRRG FDXVHGWZR casualties and heavy damage to some one hundred PXG KRXVHV´ LW ZDV WULJJHUHG E\ WKH LQDGHTXDWH steam pumping station". All the other concessions ZHUHDOVRD൵HFWHGPRVWGUDPDWLFDOO\WKH)UHQFKDQG British ones.

7KH GHYDVWDWLRQ LQÀLFWHG RQ ODUJH SDUWV RI WKH Austro-Hungarian concession gave rise to mutual accusations by the Beijing delegation, with von 6WRUFN DQG WKH 0LQLVWU\ RI )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV LQ 9Lenna95 on the one side, and Consul Stumvoll, a consulted expert (engineer Bruno Moser96), and the concession secretary Eduard Andres versus the H.G.B., with Hugo Accurti, on the other side (see the dispute of the latter two below). An article from the Chinese local newspaper *Xinghua ribao* (lit.: *Awakening*  *China Pictorial*) was attached to the internal reports and highlighted with a red pencil; it reported on 1 September 1911 about the strong rainfall on 30 August 1911 (naming "the 7th day of the 7th month of the 3rd year of the Xuantong Era" as the Chinese date) and depicted a scene of the Chinese inhabitants cleaning their devastated houses and streets after the incident **(Fig. 53)**. 98

8QWLO WKH SUHVHQW VWXG\ VFLHQWL¿F LQYHVWLJDWLRQV had not managed to reconstruct the urban architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession. With reference to this fact, the recent discovery of WKH FRQFHVVLRQ¶V R൶FLDO LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ SODQ WR-JHWKHU ZLWK D XQLTXH VHW RI SKRWRJUDSKV DQG D GHtailed description of the entire project, must count as a milestone towards assembling *all* the components of the mosaic of Tientsin's global history. More than one hundred years after it saw the light of day, the whole document was rediscovered in April 2020 by the writing author, ordered to be digitalised, and is now presented here in all its completeness for the ¿UVWWLPH\*LYHQWKDWWKHUHLVQRLQGLFDWHGDXWKRUVKLS or date (*c.*1911), this 'spectacular' document was most likely produced as a report about the aftermath RIWKHPDVVLYHÀRRGLQJGLVDVWHURYHUWKHFRQFHVVLRQ on 30 August 1911. It was attached to further diplomatic correspondence, the context of which was lost when it was separated from the hand-written material (stored in the nearby Austrian State Archives) and transferred to the 'Picture Archives and Graphics Department' of the Austrian National Library in Vienna.

The document comprises three items. First, a bound album with a red cover entitled "Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin" contains 115 black-andwhite photographs glued on greenish cardboard pages. All photographs are hand-numbered from 1 to 115, and these numbers refer to the second item: a \*HUPDQWH[WRI¿IWHHQW\SHZULWWHQ\$SDJHVHQWLWOHG

 <sup>94</sup> The package of documents was compiled by Stumvoll, in: HHStA F63/3 (307, Verzeichnis der Berichte vom 29.12.1911), Stum-YROOWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ)HEUXDU\

<sup>95</sup> :KLOH\$FFXUWL TXRWHG VHYHUDO RI KLV VXSSRVHGO\ HDUOLHU ZDUQLQJV DERXW RYHUGXH HDUWKZRUNV LQ WKH D൵HFWHG DUHD YRQ 6WRUFN TXRWHGKLVRZQUHPDUNVDERXW³WKHH[WHQGHGSRQGRIVWDJQDQWZDWHU´DQG³JUHDWHVWFDODPLW\ZLWKLQWKHµGLVSXWHGODQG¶DVUHJDUGV veritable foci of typhoid during the summer months" (HHStA F63/3, Storck to the Ministry of 28 March and 5 April 1911). 96 ,QDFRPPLVVLRQHGDVVHVVPHQWUHSRUWFLYLOHQJLQHHU%UXQR0RVHUUHFRQ¿UPHGWKHLQH൶FLHQF\RIWKHSXPSLQJVWDWLRQDQGRIWKH

earthworks towards the border with the Italian concession. Other reports by Franz Bauer and a French engineer were attached, as well as von Storck's photographic study of 29 August 1911 (see below). HHStA GesA 102 (Settlement), von Storck, k.u.k. Ge-VFKlIWVWUlJHU3HNLQJ7LHQWVLQ2FWREHU

 <sup>97</sup> I thank my colleague Georg Lehner for his translation; about the issue of publicity in Tianjin, including the pictured newspaper,

see Fang 2011, 21. 98 2WKHUQHZVSDSHUVUHSRUWHGRQWKHLQFLGHQWVXFKDV7DJEODWWIU1RUGFKLQD³6WDUNHU6WXUPEHU7LHQWVLQJURH6FKlGHQ´&KLQD Times ("Heavy rains in Tientsin"), Tientsin and Peking Times ("Hurricane in Tientsin"), all on 31 August 1911; and Min-Schin-Pao (Tientsin 1 and 4 September 1911). Newspaper clippings in HHSTA F63.3 (307).

**Fig. 53** Press cutting from the Chinese newspaper *Xinghua ribao* (30 August 1911) reporting on strong rainfall in Tianjin and destroyed houses in the Austro-Hungarian concession [Austrian State Archives]

**Figs. 54a,b** Overall map and detail of the Austro-Hungarian concession (*c.*1911), recently rediscovered at the Austrian National Library, Vienna [Austrian National Library, Picture Archives and Graphics Department]

"Description and explication of the individual photographic shots" (Anonymous 1911). Both the photographs and the text (it is also translated here in English) are reproduced in the appendix to this publica-WLRQ IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH 7KH WKLUG LWHP LV D ODUJH hand-drawn, hand-coloured "Map of the Aus-WUR+XQJDULDQ &RQFHVVLRQ LQ 7LHQWVLQ VTXDUH kilometre" on 69 × 51 cm transparent drawing paper **(Figs. 54a,b)**, in its amount of information being similar to the aforementioned version from *c.*1906 (Figs. 41a,b). As paratextual devices, an arrow pointing north and a scale bar in British imperial units (feet) were added, together with a coloured legend indicating "large streets" (in blue; see the dominant bent *Hsin-Lung-Dschie* to the left-hand side, to the north, with the adjacent *yamen* "municipality building"), "housing blocks of the H.B.G." (in white) and "building plots of the H.B.G." (in brown). Additionally, the neighbouring administrative sections (the "Chinese riverside" and the Japanese, French, Russian, and Italian concessions), the "Pai and Hai Rivers", and the eastern rail tracks of the "Imperial Chinese Northern Railways" were indicated.

If we compare the "built structures" on this map of 1911 with the above-mentioned maps of 1899 by Feng Qihuang (see Fig. 5a/c), 1900/1902 by Noah Drake (see Figs. 5b/d and 7), 1902 in the internal Count Montecuccoli report (see Fig. 9) and 1905/6 (Figs. 39, 40), we notice how little was actually constructed during the short Austrian-Hungarian intermezzo by the Hotung Construction Company: a PRGHVW XUEDQ HQVHPEOH RI URXJKO\ ¿YH E\ ¿YH streets within a small loose triangle stretching from the 'Austrian bridge' to the border with the Italian concession.

\$ VPDOO VHOHFWLRQ RI WKHVH XQLTXH SKRWRJUDSKV will be discussed here to illustrate the completed projects. Starting the visual tour with a view from the western 'Chinese side' just south of the 'Austrian bridge' provides us with a couple of photographs **(Figs. 55a,b)** of the consulate and secretariat buildings (compare with Fig. 26a from 1905), the neighbouring houses of the Taussig Company (the map indicates 'Fischer'99) and the Belgian Tramway Company house with its two-storeyed loggia, which are followed south along the river (see map in Fig. 32) by the plot of the (Johann) Brunner Construction Company (see his involvement below) and further undeveloped street blocks up to the border with the Italian concession.

Looking north from the bridge, we can see the church *Notre-Dame-des-Victoires* (erected by the French in 1869, destroyed by war, and then rebuilt) DFURVVWKHFRQÀXHQFHRIWKH+DLDQG3DL5LYHUVMXVW outside the Austro-Hungarian concession **(Fig. 55c)** and, closer to the bridge inside the concession, the great market hall, which is visually overshadowed by a giant Japanese billboard **(Fig. 55d)**. On the map, the site is indicated as "Market Hall" [*Markthalle*] (Anonymous 1911, 15). According to the earlier Fischer report of 1907 (see above), "it covered 5220 m2 ".100

If we follow the path over the 'Austrian bridge', the view opens towards the concession **(Fig. 55e**, compare with Fig. 35b looking the other way round towards the Chinese police station) and, from there, along the riverbank in its status of work in progress towards the bridge in full swing function **(Fig. 55f)**.

Just south of the bridge along the Austrian riverside, the main entrance to the consulate comes into view **(Fig. 56a)** while the concession's main street, called Baron Czikann Street [*Baron-Czikann-Straße*], leads directly into the main building ensemble by the Hotung Construction Firm *H.B.G.* **(Fig. 56b):** a set of "half European, half Chinese, socalled semi-foreign houses" (c.f. Ludwig 1907, 234). 7RZDUGVWKH ¿UVWLQWHUVHFWLRQ ZLWK&RQVXODWH 6WUHHW [*Konsulatgasse*] to the right-hand side stands a two-storey brick building with, according to the text description, "a watch shop in the basement and the H[HFXWLYHR൶FHRIWKH+%\*RQWKH¿UVWÀRRUDQGD ¿UVWFODVV &KLQHVH KRWHO DWWDFKHG´ \$QRQ\PRXV 1911, 2). On the photograph, the tracks and overhead cables of the passing electric tramway are visible **(Fig. 56c**, cf. the sketch on Fig. 30a**)**.

On the opposite side, the market hall entry has a richly decorated and unplastered brick façade **(Fig. 56d)**. Along the main street, typical European shop façades with sunblinds above all windows are lined up on both sides while busy Chinese workers are passing by. We see "a Chinese pharmacy in the basement and the storage facilities of a Chinese pawn

<sup>99</sup> )LVFKHUKLPVHOIPHQWLRQHGWKHVLWHRIWKH\*RWWOLHE7DXVVLJ&RPSDQ\DV³WKHRQO\QDWLYH>\$XVWULDQ@¿UPWRKDYHWDNHQSUR¿WIURP the good location of our settlement" (Fischer 1907). 100 In 1907, Fischer stated that the market place housed with its adjacent rectangular drill ground, the Austrian "sub-detachment of 30

marines under the command of the */LQLHQVFKLৼVIlKQULFK* [ship liner sergeant] A.P. Homayr" (Fischer 1907). As we tried to explain above, the navy partly moved into the yamen (compare Figs. 51–52).

**Figs. 55a-f** Black-and-white photographs, in "Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin" (*c.*1911), a bound album recently rediscovered at the Austrian National Library, Vienna [Austrian National Library, Picture Archives and Graphics Department]

**55a:** View towards the Austro-Hungarian concession across the river with, from left to right: the consulate, the secretariat building, and the Taussig/Fischer Company building. **55b:** View towards the Austro-Hungarian concession across the river with, from left to right: the secretariat building, the Taussig/Fischer Company, and the Belgian Tramway Company. **55c:** View across the river towards the north, with *Notre-Dame-des-Victoires*, a French church, just outside the Austro-Hungarian concession. **55d:** View towards the Austro-Hungarian concession across the river, featuring the L-shaped market building and a giant Japanese billboard. **55e:** View towards the east across the 'Austrian Bridge', with the Baron-Czikann-Street in the background. **55f:** The swinging section of the µ\$XVWULDQ%ULGJH¶SKRWRJUDSKHGDORQJWKHQHZTXD\EXLOGLQJVXQGHUFRQVWUXFWLRQ

**Figs. 56a-f** Black-and-white photographs, in "Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin" (*c.*1911), a bound album recently rediscovered at the Austrian National Library, Vienna [Austrian National Library, Picture Archives and Graphics Department]

**Fig. 56f**

**56a:** The Austro-Hungarian consulate with its original main entry oriented towards the riverside. **56b:** A view towards the concession's main street, Baron Czikann Street [*Baron-Czikann-Straße*]: to the right, the building of the Hotung Construction Company and to the left, the entry to the market hall. **56c:** Seat of the Hotung Construction Company; cables and tracks of the tramway can also be seen. **56d:** Entry to the market hall. **56e:** On Baron Czikann Street: a shop façade with a Chinese pharmacy in the basement and the VWRUDJHIDFLOLWLHVRID&KLQHVHSDZQVKRSRQWKH¿UVWÀRRU**56f:**9LHZLQWR<DPHQ6WUHHWZLWKWKHIRUPHU&KLQHVHPXQLFLSDOLW\EXLOGing behind to the further right.

**Fig. 57a Fig. 57b**

**Fig. 57c**

**Figs. 57a-c** Black-and-white photographs, in "Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin" (*c.*1911), a bound album recently rediscovered at the Austrian National Library, Vienna [Austrian National Library, Picture Archives and Graphics Department]

**57a:** The theatre of the Hotung Construction Company on Baron Czikann Street. **57b:** The last houses along Baron Czikann Street, looking north-east towards the Italian concession. **57c:** The undeveloped section between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian concessions in the background, with its Vittorio Emanuele Street and tower-like consulate building.

VKRS RQ WKH ¿UVW ÀRRU´ **(Fig. 56e)**. While a photo-JUDSKLF VKRWLQWRWKH VLGH VWUHHW FDOOHG<DPHQ 6WUHHW R൵HUV D UDUH YLHZWRZDUGVWKH URXJKHU EULFN IDoDGHV of lower residential houses on the right and, in the background, the aforementioned "municipality building which was installed in a former Chinese temple" **(Fig. 56f***,* cf. Fig. 52a**)**. Towards the second half of the Czikann Street, a "Chinese Singsong-Theatre of the H.B.G." **(Fig. 57a)** stands close to the large H.B.G. theatre, which "rarely opened", as the attached description text admitted (Anonymous 1911, 2–3). After some hundred metres, the Austro-Hungarian concession suddenly comes to an end **(Fig. 57b).** It gives way to an open, rather deserted view towards the Italian concession to the east, "with its Via Vittorio Emanuele Street, the new [Italian] consulate building to the left, and a recently built private mansion to the right" **(Fig. 57c)** (Anonymous 1911, 4–5).

Finally, a long series of photographs documents WKHÀRRGHGDUHDULJKWRQWKHHDVWHUQHGJHRIWKHFRUH section of the Austro-Hungarian concession: this section is marked with a 'wave symbol' on the map (see Fig. 54a) and labelled a "disputed land" [*Strittiges Terrain*] towards the railway. To show some of them in the present context (see Illustrations 55–82 in the full version of the photographic album of 1911, Appendix), we present the eclectic mansion of Hugo Accurti (the director of the H.B.G. and secretary of the concession). It was situated close to the Italian concession and neighboured the concession's coal shop. However, when this photograph was taken the house was surrounded by a large pool of waste water **(Fig. 58a)** \$QRWKHU SKRWRJUDSK GHSLFWV WKH ÀRRGHG DUHDV around minor Chinese houses nearby **(Fig. 58b)**.

Those 'backyard' photographs of the Austro-Hungarian concession are useful today for a cri-WLTXHRIWKHPDVWHUQDUUDWLYHDERXWWKHVXSSRVHGH൶ ciency of Western-Chinese development projects. Information that circulated back then in the LQWHUQDWLRQDO SUHVV OLNH WKH DERYHTXRWHG Vienna speech by Vice-Consul Ludwig) seems to have survived from a present-day perspective and KHOSWKH µR൶FLDO¶ UHLQYHQWLRQRI7LDQMLQ¶VJOREDO UHbirth by local Chinese municipal politicians (see below), continue to summarise international develop-PHQW H൵RUWV WKURXJK D UDWKHU SRVLWLYH VWRU\OLQH while the problematic — or even 'failed' — histories behind this overall picture are most often missing. \$VZHFDQ VHHLQWKHVH SKRWRJUDSKVWKHÀRRGFRQtrol of the wider river system across the city and the inner urban drainage system of Tientsin were far from settled in the following years. In particular, the GUDPDWLF DIWHUH൵HFWV FDXVHG E\ D ³W\SKRRQ RQ 30 August 1911" (as Hai-Ho Conservancy Board re-SRUWV FRQ¿UPHG IRU WKDW \HDU101 had severe conse-TXHQFHVIRUWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ\$QGLW is likely that our rediscovered photographic album, with its 115 black-and-white photographs and the attached 15-page typescript (see the full document in the appendix) had been ordered by the Vienna-Budapest administration back in the European motherlands.

Beyond the great narrative of Western engineering knowledge and technology102 being imported and applied to modernise China, the ongoing problems RIIDLOLQJGUDLQDJHVHZDJHDQGÀRRGSURWHFWLRQV\Vtems — with their rather disturbing 'anti-hygienic non-modernities' aspect (to borrow in reverse Ruth Rogaski's denomination of a regime of 'hygienic PRGHUQLW\¶ ZKLFK XQLWHG WKH H൵RUWV RI DOO SUHVHQW Concession Powers)103 — demonstrated the "fragile system of maintaining the seaport of Tientsin" and, DOVR WKH GL൶FXOW ³VHJPHQWHG DGPLQLVWUDWLRQV RI Tientsin and its vicinity to negotiate and mediate WKHLUFRQÀLFWLQJDJHQGDV´ .DQ7RDGGD somewhat critical observation on the all-too-easily

 <sup>101</sup> ,QRXUSKRWRJUDSKLFDOEXPVHH\$SSHQGL[WKHDXWKRUUHSHDWHGO\PHQWLRQHGWKHÀRRGRI\$XJXVWVHHWKHOHJHQGVWRKLV,O-OXVWUDWLRQV ± +RZHYHUWKLV ZDV QRW D XQLTXHLQFLGHQWLQWKH DIRUHPHQWLRQHG DQQXDO UHSRUW RIWKH +DL+R&RQVHUYDQF\%RDUGÀRRGLQJZDVPHQWLRQHGDVD UHFXUULQJSUREOHPGXULQJWKHV +DL+R&RQVHUYDQF\± 15), but the incident on 30 August 1911 was explicitly mentioned: "On the 30th August [1911] a typhoon caused the level of the water at the North Fort to rise to the unprecedented height of 13 ft 3 T.D." (Hai-Ho Conservancy 1919, 28). Additionally, the SUREOHPRIWKHHQRUPRXV³VWRUDJHFDSDFLW\´DQGWKHJUHDWGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQ³ORZZDWHU´DQG³ÀRRGWLGHV´RIWKHULYHUZDVUH-SRUWHGWR EH D FRQVWDQW RQH\$QRWKHU ÀRRG ZDV UHSRUWHGLQ DQG ³ÀRRG UHOLHI´ ZDV GHFODUHG RQH RIWKHODUJHVWLVVXHV IRU decades to come (Hai-Ho Conservancy 1919, 38, 159, 185). 102 A good example is William McLeish's short individual eye-witness report in 1917, *Life in a China Outport*, in which he con-

FOXGHGWKDW³WKH7LHQWVLQFRPPXQLW\ QDWLYHDQG IRUHLJQZDVWKH¿UVWLQ&KLQDWR SXVK ULYHUFRQVHUYDQF\WR SUDFWLFDO VXFFHVV´ (McLeish 1917, 10). However, in his short introduction to the foreign concessions, he also commented on the little relevance of the Austro-Hungarian concession, "the Austrian area being nothing else than a deep cut into the densely populated Native City" (McLeish 1917, 14). 103 "In spite of the power of hygienic modernity to transform urban space and urban behaviours, it did not achieve a seamless

hegemony, nor should it be seen as a monolithic entity" (Rogaski 2000, 31).

**Fig. 58a Fig. 58b**

**Fig. 58c Fig. 58d**

**Fig. 58e Fig. 58f**

**Figs. 58a-f** Black-and-white photographs, in "Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin" (*c.*1911), a bound album recently rediscovered at the Austrian National Library, Vienna [Austrian National Library, Picture Archives and Graphics Department]

**58a:** The eclectic house of Hugo Accurti, a director of the Hotung Construction Company, stands LQWKHEDFNJURXQGPXGG\ÀRRG water in the middle ground, and Chinese children on the right-hand side in the foreground. **58b:** A view into the dirty backstreets of &KLQHVHKRXVHVLQÀRRGZDWHU**58c:** The 'Charity school' [*Armenschule*] on the edge of the drainage pool inside the Austro-Hungarian concession. **58d:** 'Chinese school' with playground and pupils standing in rows. **58e:** European (Austrian?) man in white suit, sur-URXQGHGE\&KLQHVHPHQDQGVKRHOHVVEDUHFKHVWHG&KLQHVHFKLOGUHQVWDQGLQJDURXQGWKHÀRRGHGPXGDUHDVLQVLGHWKH\$XVWUR+XQgarian concession. **58f:** The concession's still muddy and unpaved waterfront in 1911; above the far horizon rises the French cathedral.

narrated and supposedly one-dimensional and ho-PRJHQLVLQJ H൵HFWV RI D ¿UVW SHDN RI JOREDOLVDWLRQ around 1900, Austria-Hungary only had a very limited share within these large-scale technological regimes at play through the Western Concession Powers, whereas Great Britain, France, and Germany ZHUHLQWKH¿UVWURZRIDFWRUVDIWHU

Back to our case in the Austro-Hungarian concession itself and in addition to infrastructure and housing projects, education was another 'civilising' element in the written and photographic report of 1911. As already depicted through a sketch plan above (cf. Fig. 46), the "charity school [*Armenschule*]" is next in the photographic documentation of 1911 **(Fig. 58c)**. Additionally, the "Chinese school with playground **(Fig. 58d)** nearby was converted", according to the accompanying text to the photographic album, "into an isolation hospital [*Isolierspital*] during the plague in the springtime of this year" — the epidemic having occurred between 1910 and 1911 (Anonymous 1911, 8–9).104

The colonial habitus of Western men in white suits and spotless uniforms next to shoeless bare-chested &KLQHVHFKLOGUHQVWDQGLQJLQÀRRGHGPXGDUHDV**(Fig. 58e)**YLVLEO\VWDQGVRXWLQWKLVXQLTXHSKRWRJUDSKLFVHries, which also comprises depictions of "the old cemetery" and the "private cemetery of the Chu Family", a series of seven roundish earthen heaps (cf. Appendix of the Photographic Album Fig. 83). So does the fact that the Austro-Hungarian civilising (here engineering) mission was far stronger on rhetoric and planning than on concrete achievements. This latter aspect becomes clear if we compare an upstream view of the concession's still muddy and unpaved waterfront in 1911 **(Fig. 58f)** with a similar view photographed seven years earlier (cf. Fig. 28).

,IWKLVXQLTXHSKRWRJUDSKLFDOEXPZDVPDGHMXVW DIWHUWKHGUDPDWLFÀRRGLQJFDXVHGE\WKHW\SKRRQRI 30 August 1911 to document the infrastructural fra-JLOLW\ RIWKH ULYHU DQG RIWKH ÀRRG DQG ZDVWH ZDWHU control system within the Austro-Hungarian concession, one may wonder about the status of the concession 'just before' this incident. In this context, another internal report has survived in the Austrian State Archives. It was drafted by von Storck, signed "Peking, 29 August 1911" (supposedly just one day before the destructive typhoon over Tientsin!), and addressed to Count Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal, the DFWLQJ0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQD105 In his QLQHSDJH W\SHVFULSW 6WRUFN MXVWL¿HG KLV SHUVRQDO visit to the concession to form an opinion about the "continuous attacks against the houses built by the +RWXQJ &RQVWUXFWLRQ &RPSDQ\ LQ 7LHQWVLQ´ DQG ¿ nally disproved the rumours "that they were declared unsuitable for Europeans". However, he admitted that for his explanation he had departed from "the VHOIHYLGHQW SUHUHTXLVLWHWKDW ULFK SHRSOH ZLWK D GHsire for luxury would themselves never intend to take up residence in our settlement, which was far UHPRWH IURPWUD൶F XSWRQRZQRWHYHQSRRU(XURpeans had moved here), but it was to do for those businessmen and craftsmen with lower aspiration ZKRVWLOOLQWHQGHGWR¿UVWHDUQWKHLUPRQH\RXWKHUH´

At the start of his attached, annotated survey containing thirteen photographs, Storck positioned three older photographs about the "original condition of WKHVHWWOHPHQWLQLWV¿UVW¿YH\HDUV´LH± depicting "old mud hut and population", the old ÀRDWLQJ SRQWRRQ EULGJH ³ZLWK D YLHZWRZDUGV\$XVtro-Hungarian concession in 1906", and "better Chinese houses of old style") **(Fig. 59a)**, against another pair of photographs, dating from "some years later (1908), a couple of years of the activities of Accurti and the Hotung-Baugesellschaft" and from 1911, with a view down the paved main street, with Chinese pedestrians, a tramway car and a rickshaw **(Figs. 59b,c)**. Storck then added a page of photographs taken left and right of the main street and along it **(Fig. 59d)**, with a rare view of the so-called "Marine-Grundstück" [*navy grounds*, which were never developed into planned barracks, see our discussion above], "some semi-foreign houses along the north side of the main street", and a "European house at the H.B.G. gateway" (on the left edge of the photograph, while depicting a busy gate towards "Tongji chayuan" for "Tea Garden" and the small sign "Caution Tramcars" on its signpost). The next photograph was taken down the main street from the Italian side, with the double tracks and electric traction overhead system of the tramway on the righthand side, and the serialised European-style brick houses on the left-hand side.

 <sup>104</sup> Rogaski reminds us that just as the Austro-Hungarian concession was being installed in 1902, "a devastating cholera epidemic swept through all the enclaves of Tianjin" (Rogaski 2000, 37). 105:LOKHOP5LWWHUYRQ6WRUFNWR&RXQW\$ORLV/H[DYRQ\$HKUHQWKDO0LQLVWHURI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV%HLMLQJ\$XJXVWQLQHSDJH

typescript with thirteen photographs), HHStA A.R. F63/4 (246).

**Fig. 59a**

**Fig. 59b**

**Fig. 59c**

**Figs. 59a-c** Photographs attached to the report by Wilhelm Ritter von Storck, secretary of the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing, signed on 29 August 1911 [Austrian State Archives]

**Fig. 59a** Collage of three photographs depicting the Austro-Hungarian concession in 1906 (from left to right): "old mud hut and population", the ROGÀRDWLQJSRQWRRQEULGJH³ZLWKDYLHZWRZDUGV the Austro-Hungarian concession in 1906", and "better Chinese houses in the old style"

**Fig. 59b-c** Photographs of the main street (Baron Czikann Street] taken in 1908/1911

**Fig. 59d** Page of photographs from the Storck report of 1911, from top: grounds of the navy; semi-foreign houses on the north side of the main street; and "Tongji chayuan" [Tea Garden] at the great gateway situated behind the Austro-Hungarian consulate [Austrian State Archives]

Since this was one main objective of Storck's re-SRUWWKHQH[W IRXUSKRWRJUDSKV IRFXVHGRQGL൵HUHQW types of backstreet within the new urban street grid: while "the side street behind the walls of the consu-ODWH FRPSRXQG´ ZDV FOHDQ DQG HOHFWUL¿HG DQG opened the view towards a two-storey house façade with a serialised brick ornamentation, folded sunblinds above the windows, and stylised vases along the eaves **(Fig. 60a)**, the one behind the H.B.G. building, lined by Chinese mud houses (some of them with thatched roofs, their doors and windows covered with simple lattice work), was unpaved and, as the author indicated, "deep faeces and dirt deposits were to be recognised even under the QHZ DQG ¿HUFH UHJLPH´ **(Fig. 60b)**. Somewhere in between these extremes, two other photographs docu mented unpaved, but better maintained, narrow and busy side streets [*Nebenstraße*] perpendicular to the main street **(Figs. 60c,d**, compare with the map in Fig. 54b**)**7KH¿QDOWKUHHSKRWRJUDSKVLQGLFDWHWKH sharp edge between the 'developed' streetscape near the eastern border with the Italian concession, including the vernacular mud structures of the Chinese habitations, which in most cases were relicts of the pre-Austro-Hungarian period (**Fig. 61a**), the house of Hugo Accurti (**Fig. 61b**, in the background), and the view down Czikann Street from the Italian borderline (**Fig. 61c**).

Through this report and the aforementioned photographic documents, it becomes evident that infrastructural, hygienic and architectural standards, both as regards the new brick or older mud houses themselves DQG R൶FLDO VWUXFWXUHV YV WKH DQRQ\PRXVYHUQDFXODU reality) and maintenance (or lack of care) of streetscapes, varied greatly in relation to their proximity to the Baron Czikann Street, the neat showcase of the Austro-Hungarian concession. Without a doubt, the W\SKRRQLQGXFHG ÀRRG GLVDVWHU LQ \$XJXVW DOVR constituted a crucial threshold. On the one side stood the pre-1911 structural achievements of the Hotung Construction Company, which had already slowed down considerably before and around 1910 and were not fundamentally updated after the 1911 disaster (some voices were even heard demanding the demoli-WLRQRIQHJOHFWHGSURMHFWV2QWKHRWKHUVLGHZH¿QG the post-1911 desire of the Austro-Hungarian concession's new administrators (particularly when Consul Schumpeter arrived in 1912, see below) to take further development back in their own hands.

It also seems that the local Chinese agency gradually changed after 1911, although the 1911 Chinese Revolution, incoming refugees, and the tensions in the run-up to World War I in 1914 were also noticeable in the small Austro-Hungarian concession (see below). By juxtaposing the Austrian map of 1901 (cf. )LJ  ZLWK D FORVHXS VHFWLRQ RI WKH DERYHTXRWHG Chinese one of 1912 **(Fig. 62**, cf. Fig. 1**)**, again we become aware of how 'cartographic discourses' (after -%+DUOH\SURGXFHGGL൵HUHQWYLVXDOODQJXDJHVZLWK FRPSHWLQJWHUULWRULDODQGVRFLDOFODLPVFIWKHGL൵HUent Chinese and European maps in Figs. 5 and 6). While the Austrian map covered only the urban architectural achievements of the occupying foreign power and left 'the other place empty' without any further indications, the Chinese map also indicated — *under* the large overall English letters "Austro-Hungarian" — many local, 'indigenous' sites in Chinese, amongst them the "Tianxian Tea Garden", to the east just *behind* Austria's most representative building, the "consulate" (indicated in brackets).

)LQDOO\WKH GLVDVWHUDOVR KDGFRQVHTXHQFHV for individual actors on the Austro-Hungarian side: for many years, Hugo Accurti's double role — as secretary of the Austro-Hungarian concession on the one side, and as director of the Hotung Construction Company on the other — made a neutral controlling RIWKHLQH൵HFWLYHQHVVRIXUEDQGHYHORSPHQWRQWKH VSRWYHU\GL൶FXOW7KH+%\*¶VDQQXDOEXVLQHVVUHports clearly point to its gradual decline after 1908/9 VHH DERYH DQG WKH ÀRRG GLVDVWHU RI \$XJXVW certainly added momentum to the downward spiral at the local level. However, the decline of Accurti KLPVHOIZDV DWUXO\ µJOREDO D൵DLU¶ ,QWKH DIWHUPDWK of a dispute with the new secretary Eduard Andres (the latter lodged a criminal complaint against Ac-FXWLDVUHJDUGVOHJDODQG¿QDQFLDOLUUHJXODULWLHV\$Fcurti, together with his wife Daisy, were found guilty on 20 October 1911 of false testimony; the process took place in the Italian city of Fiume, where he was born, and they were sentenced by the Consular High &RXUW LQ &RQVWDQWLQRSOH ZKHUH OHJDO D൵DLUV RI WKH Austro-Hungarian Monarchy concerning the 'Orient' were dealt with) "to three weeks of enforced arrest", a punishment that shortly after was weakened by the highest authorities to "three weeks of house arrest". The mitigating factor for this was a curious (real or staged) act of local solidarity: a "Petition by 69 Chinese merchants and notable citizens" from the Austro-Hungarian concession dated 19 January 1912. The original document, with all stamped signatures, including (as the document puts it) one "signing with a peacock feather, the sub-prefect in the rank of a Vice-Salt Controller, Li Wen Hsi" **(Figs. 63a,b)** as well as Arthur von Rosthorn's translation letter to

**Fig. 60a**

**Figs. 60a-d** Four photographs from the Storck report of 1911 showing several side streets, from top left to bottom right: "Side street behind the walls of the consulate compound" (60a), dirty backstreets with Chinese mud houses and the backs of houses built by the H.B.G. (60b); busy side street with "Sing-Song-Girl houses, covered up by roofs made of straw mats" (60c); unpaved side street (60d) [Austrian State Archives]

**Fig. 60b**

**Fig. 61a**

**Figs. 61a-c** Photographs from the Storck report of 1911. From top to bottom: Street with original mud houses (61a), the Accurti house (61b, in the background) and a view down Czikann Street as seen from the border with the Italian concession (61c) [Austrian State Archives]

**Fig. 62** Close-up of "Map of Tientsin" of 1911 (compare with Fig. 1), with Chinese indications of local buildings; all "Austro-Hungarian" sites are mentioned in brackets. Also indicated are: the "Jintang" Bridge; the Austrian consulate with its attached "Tianxian" Tea Garden; to the south, the "Shuntai" site (Fischer & Co.) and the Tramway Company; and to the north of the bridge, the Austro-Hungarian marine detachment barracks [ Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division, Washington D.C., USA]

Vienna, could be located in the Austrian State Archives.106

[…] We beg for mercy, clemency and indulgence LQWKLVD൵DLURIDSXQLVKPHQWRIDFLYLOVHUYDQW>«@ 0U \$FFXUWL KDV KHOG R൶FH LQ WKLV VHWWOHPHQW IRU eight years, he understands the temper of the Chinese very well, can speak Chinese himself und the Chinese population loves him very much; additionally, he is very clement, righteous, incorruptible and reasonable. This is why the inhabitants of the settlement trust him. He took up his duties in 1902 after the Boxer Uprising, he understood the VX൵HULQJDQGWKHSDLQRIRXUSHRSOHDQGKDGPHUF\ with it. That we are still alive is due to all his merit alone. With our signatures, we petition that he should be given back his position as the secretary of the settlement.

**Figs. 63a,b** Petition by 69 Chinese merchants and notable citizens" from the Austro-Hungarian concession of 19 January 1912 (folded and read from right to left; the beginning and concluding parts are shown here). [Austrian State Archives]


 <sup>106</sup> Original petition of 19 January 1912 and Rosthorn's letter and translation from 20 January, HHStA F63.4 (301–302).

#### **7KH¿QDO\HDUVRI\$XVWULD+XQJDU\¶VFRQcession era in Tientsin and its dissolution (1913–24)**

The last Austro-Hungarian players entered the diplomatic stage in China towards World War I:107 Arthur von Rosthorn became the Beijing-based Austro-Hungarian "plenipotentiary minister"108 from 1911 onwards while Hugo Schumpeter was appointed the new k.u.k. Consul in Tientsin in 1912. In 1912, in a report to the Vienna-based Ministry of )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV 6FKXPSHWHU FRPSODLQHG DERXW WKH meagre development of 'his' concession: "With the H[FHSWLRQRIRXUPDLQVWUHHWDQGWKHTXD\VHFWLRQRI some 200 metres, [it had] stayed the same half-dilapidated Chinese village [*Chinesendorf*] as when he had taken it over".109 As we shall see in further detail EHORZ WKHUH ZHUH GL൶FXOWLHV IURP ZLWK 6FKXPSH ter's "enforced modernisation" project [*Zwangsmodernisierung*] from the outset. Constant disputes with the local population (new, poorer migrants rushed into the area after the 1911 revolutionary upheavals) slowed down modernisation. The validity of ownership titles was never clearly established. &RQ¿VFDWLRQV ZHUH FRPSOLFDWHG DV ZHUH HYHQWXDO GHPROLWLRQV RI SUHH[LVWLQJ KRXVHV DV D SUHUHTXLVLWH for the construction of any new building. Additionally, the full drainage of the unsanitary stagnant water and the relocation of thousands of Chinese graves were little successful. While the borderlines with the Italian neighbours were updated, the ones with the QHLJKERXULQJ&KLQHVHTXDUWHUVDQGWKH&KLQHVHUDLOway company whose tracks ran along the eastern edge of the concession (see the illustrations in the annexed Photographic Album from *c.*1911) stayed unresolved. However, in a veritable wave of expropriations, which continued even after World War I broke out in 1914, arguably a fourth of the approx. 40,000 Chinese inhabitants may have lost their houses.110 Finally, the First World War completely changed the situation for Austro-Hungary in Tientsin. As regards its physical architectural presence in WKHIRUPRIDQR൶FLDOFRQVXODWHLWHQGHGLQ

#### <sup>X</sup> **Negotiating demarcations towards the outside — Forcing expropriation towards the inside**

When Chinese land was occupied in 1901 and the Austro-Hungarian concession then created in 1902 (see above), borderlines between it and neighbouring areas were only vaguely described. Some of them remained a source of constant discussion. One particular section of the boundary line, running from the Hai River towards the neighbouring Italian concession **(Fig. 64)** to the southern end of the Austro-Hungarian concession, was already discussed in a draft resolution by Hugo Accurti in December 1907: this concerned a mutual and fair exchange of territory of "15,677 Mou" (one *Mou* or *Mow*HTXDOOLQJP<sup>2</sup> ), as he explained in his sketch plan for "Grenz- und Canalstraße" and its legend **(Figs. 65a,b)**. 111

0RUHWKDQ¿YH\HDUVODWHULQ\$SULODUHSRUW by Arthur von Rosthorn to the new Minister of For-HLJQ\$൵DLUV &RXQW /HRSROG %HUFKWROG112 discussed "the new demarcation line between the Austro-Hungarian and the Italian concessions"; this concerned "a centred line along a new main street to cross Via Carlotto and Via Roma" on the Italian side (an Italian set of maps was added to the report) and the still roughly named "main streets II-IV" on the Austro-Hungarian side **(Figs. 66a,b)**. 113 Shortly after, Count des Fours Walderode reported from Beijing that "the new border demarcation between the Austro-Hungarian and the Italian concession became legally valid [*rechtskräftig*] on 14 July 1913".114

0XFK PRUH GL൶FXOW ZDV WKH XQQHUYLQJ GHEDWH about individual border stones on the boundary with

 <sup>107</sup> The ministers in the k.u.k. Beijing legation were: Moritz Freiherr von Czikann (1896–1905), Eugen Ritter von Kuczynski (1905– 11), and Arthur von Rosthorn (1911–17); the Tientsin consuls were: Carl Bernauer (1901–08, interim Consul Ernst Ludwig 1905–

<sup>06),</sup> Erwin Ritter von Zach (1908), Miroslav Kobr (1908–12), Felix Stumvoll (1911), and Hugo Schumpeter (1912–17). 108 At this point, China exchanged personnel who, in common diplomatic language, were named "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary", with the international powers. 109 6FKXPSHWHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV-XO\TXRWHGLQ/HKQHU

 <sup>110</sup> Detailed correspondence between Tientsin and Vienna in 1914–15 was published in Hörtler 1984, II:35–83.

 <sup>111</sup> HHStA GesA Peking 103 (Settlement Grenzregulierungen 1902/06), Accurti, Tientsin 29 December 1907.

 <sup>112</sup> After the assassination of the Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Count Leopold Berchtold (from 1912 the k.u.k. Minis-WHU RI )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV EDFNHG WKH XOWLPDWXP WR 6HUELD WKDW ZRXOG OHDG WR WKH )LUVW :RUOG :DU ZKLFK LQ RXU FRQFHSWLRQDO ³+DEVEXUJVJRLQJJOREDO´DSSURDFKKDGGLUHFWFRQVHTXHQFHVRUEHWWHUJOREDOUHYHUVHH൵HFWVIRUWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQSUHVHQFH in Tientsin (see below). 113 HHStA F63.4 (399), Rosthorn to Count Berchtold, Beijing 21 April 1913.

<sup>114</sup> ++6W\$)'HV)RXUVWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV-XO\

**Fig. 64** The Italian concession plan ("Tien-Tsin – Pianta concessione Italiana") with its urban development and taxation sections ("villaggio") and its north-western borderline with the "Concessione Austriaca" [Austrian State Archives]

**Figs. 65a,b** Plan by Hugo Accurti in 1907 mapping out several exchanges of territories between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian concessions [Austrian State Archives]

**Figs. 66a,b** 0DSVRIWKH¿QDOH[FKDQJHVRIWHUULWRULHVEHWZHHQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQDQG,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQVZKHQWKH\HQWHUHGLQWR force in July 1913 [Austrian State Archives]

the neighbouring Chinese quarters.115 In 1914, this process culminated in a dispute between the Austrian Consul and his Chinese counterpart, the local Chief of Police, Jang-Gi-Teh, about the precise boundary of the concession and the related question of modernising the *Shizijie* [Shizi Street]. Attaching a series RI&KLQHVHQHZVSDSHUFOLSSLQJVDERXWWKHD൵DLUOLNH the *Peking Jih-Pao*, *Tagblatt für Nord-China* or *Peking & Tientsin Times*) to the letter, Schumpeter himself claimed that "The precise plan had already been drafted in 1904 [and] the relevant border stones were never moved […], but may have been buried in WKH FRQWH[W RI WKH UHFHQW HDUWKZRUNV )XUWKHUPRUH the stone concerned still [did] carry the initials of Austria-Hungary, despite signs of decay". Thereupon, the Chinese side claimed that "the Austro-Hungarian concession had no right to install new border stones" and further stated in a subsequent PHHWLQJ³,>VSHDNLQJIRU@WKH\*RYHUQRURIWKH=KLOL 3URYLQFH DFNQRZOHGJH WKDW WKH KRQRXUDEOH &RQVXO intends to repair the street concerned, *but this street is an entirely Chinese street* [my emphasis]. The Chinese authorities alone have the duty to repair it".116 According to these written documents, it seems that the attached map in the Schumpeter report of April 1914 **(Fig. 67)** showing the demarcation be-WZHHQ WKH ³\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ VHWWOHPHQW´ RQ WKH left side of the map) and "Chinese territory" never UHDFKHGIXOOGLSORPDWLFDFNQRZOHGJHPHQWIURPERWK negotiating sides — contrary to the Austro-Italian deal in 1913 — and complaints from Chinese citizens continued throughout the next years.

However, moving borderlines as such was not the only problem. As early as late 1912, Consul Miroslav Kobr commented on the particularly compli-FDWHGSURSHUW\FRQGLWLRQVDORQJWKH ULYHUEDQNWKHUH stood many miserable mud huts [*elende Lehmhütten*] in narrow and tortuous side alleys, whose expropriation and demolition was a precondition for the further development of the settlement".117 A few months ODWHULQ)HEUXDU\KHGUDIWHGKLV³5HSRUWFRQ-FHUQLQJWKH SODQQHG PHOLRUDWLRQ ZRUN´LQFOXGLQJ D map concerning the "expropriation project along the southern section of the Bund" **(Fig. 68a)**, a concrete OLVWRIKRXVHVDQGDQ(QJOLVKGUDIWSURSRVDOVLJQHG ³7LHQWVLQ)HEUXDU\´IRUWKHRYHUDOO³FRVWHV-

**Fig. 67** Plan of the disputed border stones between the Austro-Hungarian concession and the neighbouring "Chinese territory", drafted in April 1914 [Austrian State Archives]

timate for the expropriation of land and houses, levelling and metalling, construction of stone gutters and underground drains, etc. for 23,642 taels". In December 1913 the full development plan was re-issued, displaying the properties of the H.G.B., as well as the planned, newly acquired and already expropriated land **(Fig. 68b)**.

 <sup>115</sup> 7KHVHFLUFXPVWDQFHVZHUHGRFXPHQWHGLQ+|UWOHU¶V3K'WKHVLVLQFOXGLQJDFROOHFWLRQRI³)LOHVDERXWWKH\$XVWULDQ7LHQWVLQFRQ-FHVVLRQ+|UWOHU,,±

 <sup>116</sup> ++6W\$\*HV\$3HNLQJ6HWWOHPHQW\*UHQ]UHJXOLHUXQJHQ6FKXPSHWHUUHSRUWVIURP\$SULODQG-XO\

<sup>117</sup> ++6W\$).REUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV1RYHPEHU

 <sup>++6</sup>W\$).REUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV)HEUXDU\

**Fig. 68a** Plan of the "Expropriation project at the southern section of the Bund" of the Austro-Hungarian concession, issued in "Tientsin, 3 February 1913" [Austrian State Archives]

**Fig. 68b** Plan of the Austro-Hungarian concession, issued "as of 31 December 1913", with a legend indicating the "property of the Hotung Baugesellschaft" (red), "other property" (green), "newly bought land" (red lines), and "expropriated land" (cross-hatched in red) [Austrian State Archives]

What Schumpeter actually intended, however, when he was appointed as the Consul in 1912, was not necessarily to bring more Austrians or other Euro peans to the concession since, with WWI in the air, no additional investors would have been prepared to bring funds to China. Instead, through a process of internal segregation, he tried to develop a socially higher stratum of the Chinese population. In a series of internal reports to the Vienna-based Min-LVWU\ RI )RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV LQ DQG 6FKXP-SHWHUSURSRVHGQHZTXD\FRQVWUXFWLRQVHDUWKZRUNV streets and sewers, suggested hiring new "consulting HQJLQHHUV´ DQG UHÀHFWHG DERXW D QHZWD[DWLRQ V\Vtem, expropriation rates, building regulations, and higher standards for buildings; he even proposed VHOOLQJWKHLQH൶FLHQW+RWXQJ&RQVWUXFWLRQ&RPSDQ\ (to the *Crédit Foncier d'Extrême-Orient*, whose head, G. Bourboulon, was the main shareholder of the H.B.G.) and reported on a "high demand for properties [*große Nachfrage nach Grundstücken*] ZKLFKMXVWL¿HGDPRUHULJRURXVVHOHFWLRQRISRWHQWLDO buyers under conditions of a better design (front gardens), executed or approved by European architects and striving for higher standards of hygiene".119

Indeed, Schumpeter would reiterate this approach — a segregation along Chinese class lines — in the internal annual "Trade Reports of the k.u.k. Austro-Hungarian consulate in Tientsin" of 1914 and 1915. In the 1914 report, he proudly listed the work in progress: "further earthworks of the expropriated northern parts between Czikann Street and Riverside Street [*Uferstraße*], the parcelling out of the emptied building area, which to a large extent has been bought by Chinese, and has already started to be developed with new houses in European style" and "further breaches [*Durchbrüche*] along the southern Bund for a second main street with better connection to the two bridges, [and] the creation of a new border road [Grenzstraße] towards the Italian conces-VLRQ´7KURXJK RXU FRQWHPSRUDU\OHQV KLV VDWLV¿HG conclusion had a hidden cynical undertone: "The expropriations of the area between both main streets forced many Chinese inhabitants of the settlement to leave so that now only 30.000 Chinese live in the concession, in comparison to some 40.000 before the expropriations started".120

Sections of his text in the 1915 trade report need WREHTXRWHG VLQFHWKH\ UHÀHFWZKDW ,ZRXOGOLNHWR call a *fractured reality* during the last active days of the Austro-Hungarian concession: wishful thinking of a supposedly bright future with "Chinese of the better class" in "European-styled houses" on the southern side (at the time a decaying development project from the early days of the Hotung Construction Company in the originally respectable centre of the concession) and an "original Chinese village" on the northern side, which had survived as an antagonist reminder of a pre-modern, i.e. pre-colonial past:

In this year many Chinese in the southern section had been expropriated and the old huts torn down. ,Q¿OOV VWUHHWV DQG VHZHUV >IROORZHG@ 7KH QHZO\ parcelled-out land was, owing to its rather high price, almost all bought by Chinese from the better class. The Chinese fear the outbreak of riots and buy land (and also properties) in our and other concessions in order to instantly build houses into which they can already move into, or would right away move into in the case of a revolution. The construction of new houses in the European style exhibits satisfying progress so that our concession is top in the building trade amongst all settlements. The southern section of our settlement has nice wide streets, pavements, sewers and electric lighting, and with its houses in foreign style and those under construction with front yards, it starts to take on a European appearance. […] The property of the H.B.G. makes no noteworthy progress. The houses on both sides of Czikann Street make no good impression, and perform very poorly as regards their construction, solidity and health-related conditions. These realities stand in the way of a ra-WLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW RI RXU FRQFHVVLRQ 7KH ¿QDO part, north of Czikann Street, has retained the character of a Chinese village, which it always had from earlier times.121

In August 1915 Schumpeter even translated this ob-VHUYDWLRQ RI GL൵HUHQW GHYHORSPHQWDO VWDJHV ZLWKLQ

<sup>119</sup> ++6W\$)6FKXPSHWHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVVHYHUDOOHWWHUVIURPDQGKHUHTXRWHGIURP-DQXDU\ 1914. 120 Handelsbericht des k.u.k. österreichisch-ungarischen Konsulates in Tientsin für das Jahr 1914 (typescript), chapter "Die öster-

reichisch-ungarische Niederlassung in Tientsin" (217–8); stored HHStA GesA Peking 71. 121 Handelsbericht des k.u.k. österreichisch-ungarischen Konsulates in Tientsin für das Jahr 1915 (typescript), chapter "Die österreichisch-ungarische Niederlassung in Tientsin" (176–184); stored HHStA GesA Peking 71. Schumpeter's report mentioned an interesting list of all existing "industrial and trade businesses" in the settlement: "A steam mill, 4 distilleries, a basket weaver, 4 sauce factories, 2 smaller weaving shops, 10 dye works, 5 glass blowers, 6 clothing shops for uniforms, 10 shoemakers, 3 tanneries, 2 soap manufacturers, 25 shops of bambooware, shops selling playing cards, joiner's workshops, pawnshops [etc.]".

**Fig. 69** ³3ODQRIWKH)RUHLJQ&RQFHVVLRQVRI7LHQWVLQ´DWWDFKHGWRDQLQWHUQDOUHSRUWWRWKH\$XVWULDQ0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVE\ Consul Schumpeter in July 1915, proposing to annex the Italian, Russian and Belgian concessions to the Austro-Hungarian and German concessions [Austrian State Archives]

the small Austro-Hungarian settlement into a scheme of "three sharply separated classes as regards the hygiene of the settlement".122

#### <sup>X</sup> **"Habsburgs going global"? The imaginaire of new expansions and coalitions at the end of empire**

While Schumpeter formulated his hygiene, segregation, and development priorities scheme for the VRPH VTXDUH NLORPHWUH RIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ concession, he even projected the macro-situation of the global warfare-cum-diplomacy constellation of ²WKH¿UVWIXOO\HDURIWKH)LUVW:RUOG:DULQ which the defence of internal European peripheries in fact completely absorbed the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy — onto the micro-constellation of the international concession set-up across Tientsin. In ZKDWPD\ EH FRQFHSWXDOLVHG DVWKH ¿QDOLPDJLQDLUH of "Habsburgs going global" in East Asia , in a letter of 12 July 1915 addressed to Baron Stefan Burián von Rajecz (from January 1915 the new Austrian 0LQLVWHU RI )RUHLJQ \$൵DLUV 6FKXPSHWHU SURSRVHG applying "the upcoming peace negotiations [in the WWI context, MF] to the extension of the Austro-Hungarian concession at the expense of the Italian and Russian settlements". Schumpeter attached a "plan of the foreign concessions of Tientsin" dis-SOD\LQJ WKHLU R൶FLDO GHOLPLWDWLRQV DQG KLV FRlour-shaded vision, which followed the conceptual aesthetics of older warfare, occupation, and annexation maps **(Fig. 69)**, and explained what he had in

 <sup>122</sup> 7KH¿UVWFODVVUHIHUUHGWRWKHVRXWKHUQVHFWLRQ³ZLWKQHZKRXVHVZLWKVHSWLFWDQNVDQGFRQQHFWLRQWRWKHVHZHUVDFFRUGLQJWRVDQLtarian standards valid in every European city"; the second concerned "the constructions of the H.B.G., where for the most part Chinese lived with their primitively built shops, where no sewerage system was possible, where dirty whorehouses were run by Chinese without any understanding of cleanliness, and where the most necessary demands of the sanitary police needed to be applied"; the third section comprised "the hopeless rest of the settlement as we found it in 1901, with houses made of wooden frames and mud covering and *c.*SHRSOHSHUVTXDUHPHWUHDSRSXODWLRQGHQVLW\XQWKLQNDEOHXQGHU(XURSHDQVWDQGDUGV´\$VUHgards the lowest class, Schumpeter saw the "only solution in successive expropriation, full demolition and complete rebuilding" ++6W\$)6FKXPSHWHUWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV7LHQWVLQ\$XJXVW

mind: while the concessions of Austria-Hungary (currently "too small to live in and too large to die in") and the German Reich were positioned at both ends of the overall concession constellation, and therefore separated from each other, Great Britain was interested, as it also was in the sphere of global RSHQWUDGHÀRZVLQ³EORFNLQJDFFHVV´WRNH\LQIUDstructural positions, which was, in the micro-perspective of Tientsin, the international railway station within the Russian sector. To overcome this risk, Schumpeter argued that the Austro-Hungarian and German concessions ought to be merged across the Russian territory at the earliest possible moment, for "unfavourable peace negotiations" at a later point would encourage Italy to swallow up the Austro-Hungarian territory and Great Britain to annex the German concession. In order to reinforce his reasoning, Schumpeter attached a four-page typescript to the report under the title "Tientsin, its trading and political importance and future", foreseeing a prosperous future for the Austro-Hungarian Empire with a new boost "to export Austrian weapon factories and steelworks" to post-war China.123

While the Sino-Austrian contact zone underwent a considerable segregation process as regards local poorer Chinese vs incoming richer Chinese, one contact situation appearing to be similar to the one experienced during the earlier days of the Austro-Hungarian concession, when the opening celebrations at the consulate and iron bridge (1905–06) had brought Austrian representatives together with <XDQ6KLNDLDQGKLV&KLQHVHFROOHDJXHVVHHDERYH ensued again when WWI broke out. This time, both VLGHVPDGH DODVW DQG XOWLPDWHO\ KRSHOHVV H൵RUWWR strengthen their relations by mutually acknowledging their imperial traditions. For this reason, the \$XVWULDQ GHOHJDWLRQ R൶FLDOO\ ZHOFRPHG <XDQ 6KLkai's 1915 enthronement as Chinese emperor (which only lasted a few months, from 12 December 1915 to 22 March 1916). Shortly after, Karl I. became heir to the throne of the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy (Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination in Sara-MHYR LQ KDYLQJ ¿QDOO\ WULJJHUHG:RUOG:DU , and his enthronement as King of Hungary on 30 December 1916 was also celebrated, at least modestly, in the Tientsin consulate in the presence of high representatives from the German concession (Lehner 1995, 484). It is likely that important Chinese representatives were also present as they had been some ten years before. This speculation is all the more rele vant because, as I explored above, both expropriated and still undeveloped slots were, to a much lesser extent, sold by Austro-Hungarian land developers to rich Chinese residents from the city, but PDQ\ IRUPHU 4LQJ R൶FLDOV PRYHG WR 7LHQWVLQ DQG Shanghai.

Domestic political instability peaked with the founding of the Republic of China in 1912 and elite Chinese showed a great deal of interest in land situated in concession areas — these were considered safer. Indeed, the *Trade Report* of 1917 stated that "properties and/or houses in the Austro-Hungarian concession were purchased by the president of the Republic of China, Feng Guozhang [see below]; the military governor of the Zhili province Cao Kun and his brother Cao Rui; Wang Zhanyuan, general from Hebei and others".124 0RVW SUREDEO\ <XDQ 6KL.DL himself was also one of these new plot owners in the Austro-Hungarian concession, but it is most unlikely that he actually built and then used a villa in the short years before his early death in June 1916 (see below).

:KHQ :RUOG :DU , EURNH RXW LQ DW ¿UVW China declared its neutrality and international busi-QHVVLQ7LHQWVLQFRQWLQXHG<HWLQ 6FKXPSHWHU formulated the aforementioned plan to merge the Austro-Hungarian and the Germen concessions (see the map above), but with the Dual Monarchy's further misfortunes during World War I, all further plans for Tientsin became obsolete. In a global chain reaction to the European side of the war, Great Britain would indeed, as Schumpeter had foreseen in his 1915 report, strategically undermine trade activities of the Central Powers in Asia; the concessions of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire became increasingly isolated.

However, the very global set-up of the concession system in Tientsin had created an entangled cosmopolitan network — one of infrastructural and logistical interdependencies and mutual obligations EH\RQG FXUUHQW D൵DLUV FI 6KHHKDQ  ,Q RXU case, the Austro-Hungarian concession, together with the Italian and Russian ones, received electricity and the tramway logistics from the Belgian concession (Belgium was a member of the Allies' side of the war, but the power supplier itself had its seat

 <sup>123</sup> HHStA F63.5 (451), Schumpeter, k.u.k. Vicekonsul und Amtsleiter an den Minister des k.u.k. Hauses und des Äußeren, Stefan Baron Burián (Tientsin 12 July 1915). 124 HHStA GA Peking 29, *+DQGHOVEHULFKWIUGDV-DKU*, as mentioned in Hörtler 1984, I:86.

**Fig. 70** Map of Tientsin in 1933, drawn for Crow's *Handbook for China*. [Crow 1933, between 338 and 339]

in the Austro-Hungarian concession) while its water supply was in the hands of a British company with its seat in the Chinese City (Liu 2011).

<HW LW ZDV DOO LQ YDLQ 8QGHU SUHVVXUH IURP WKH Allies and with its own hopes to regain control, amongst other things, of the *Schantung* Peninsula and its German naval base, *Tsingtau* (as both were called in German), China declared war to the German Empire and, therefore inevitably, to Germany's confederate, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, on 14 \$XJXVW 7KLV KDG LPPHGLDWH FRQVHTXHQFHV (Hörtler 1984, I:118–22): on the same day, the Austro-Hungarian concession was handed over to China, with Chinese soldiers taking over the area and hoist-LQJWKH&KLQHVHÀDJRQWKHFRQVXODWHEXLOGLQJ:KLOH the diplomatic corps was given safe conduct back to Europe, soldiers and marines were captured by the Russian army and held in Siberian detention camps, or escaped, supported by the Tianjin German Relief Fund [*Tientsin Hilfsaktion*@DQGFRXOGHYHQWXDOO\¿QG asylum in China (Mervay 2018). Austrian property (including three ships of the Austrian Lloyd in 6KDQJKDLZDVFRQ¿VFDWHGDQGDIWHUDVKRUWVL[WHHQ years (1901–1917), activities in the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin came to a sudden end.

#### <sup>X</sup> **The fate of the former Austro-Hungarian concession and its consulate**

In the following couple of years, the Austro-Hungarian concession was supervised by representatives from the Netherlands, which stayed neutral throughout World War I (Gotteland 2016, 52). In 1919, Arthur von Rosthorn — k.u.k. Beijing-based delegate before World War I (cf. Rosthorn 1901) and, after the war, an unswerving 'legitimist' defending Austria's monarchic past (Unterrieder 1978) voiced his support for the dissolution of the various concessions in Tientsin and Shanghai, and their "merging into one great settlement under broadest independence and an internationalised set-up" in his German pamphlet *Our relation to China before and after the war* (Rosthorn 1919, 17).

Following the Treaty of St. Germain (signed in 1919), China became a sovereign member of the League of Nations, and §§ 113–7 provided that Aus-WULD ZRXOG R൶FLDOO\ ³FHGH WR &KLQD DOO KHU ULJKWV over the buildings [and] other public property".125 After 1919, the former German and Austro-Hungarian concessions were turned into the *First* and

 <sup>125</sup> As § 115 put it: "Austria, so far as she is concerned, cedes to China all her rights over the buildings, wharves and pontoons, barracks, forts, arms and munitions of war, vessels of all kinds, wireless telegraphy installations and other public property which belonged to the former Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy, and which are situated or may be in the Austro-Hungarian Concession at Tientsin or elsewhere in Chinese territory. It is understood, however, that premises used as diplomatic or consular residences or of- ¿FHVDVZHOODVWKHH൵HFWVDQGIXUQLWXUHFRQWDLQHGWKHUHLQDUHQRWLQFOXGHGLQWKHDERYHFHVVLRQ>«@´2QOLQHKWWSZZZDXVWOLL edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1920/3.html (retrieved 26 June 2020).

*Second Special Administrative Areas* [*Sonderverwaltungszonen*] (Rasmussen 1925, 267) **(Fig. 70)**.

Surviving documents in the Austrian State Archives can help us reconstruct the fate of the most important building of the former Austro-Hungarian concession: the consulate. While the delegate of the Dutch embassy in Beijing, Oudendijk, was named to represent the interests of Austria in China, the acting Austrian honorary consul, Paul Bauer,126 was in charge of selling the property in 1923. In his corre-

 <sup>126</sup> The Viennese Paul Bauer had worked from 1901 in the Chinese Maritime Customs and Imperial Posts, and was Honorary Consul in Tientsin between 1922 and 1938 (Agstner 2018, 366; Compare with the Introduction by Georg Lehner).

spondence with the Federal Chancellery [*Bundeskanzleramt*] in Vienna, Bauer summed up the "overall property covering 7,093 Mou, including ERWK EXLOGLQJV WKH VWDEOHV WKH DGGLWLRQDO R൶FLDO resi dences in the shed [*Dienstwohnungen in der Remise*] and the gatekeeper's lodge" and reported on a ³¿QDOVDOHVDPRXQWRIWDHOV>IRUWKHSURSHUW\@ ZLWK D OLVW RI DOO IXUQLWXUH DQG ¿[WXUHV DQG WDHOV IRUWKHWHQQLV FRXUW´ KH QDPHGWKH EX\HUWKH Chinese business man Chi Chi Chai in Tientsin". ,Q D OHWWHU GDWHG 0D\ %DXHU PHQWLRQHG D VOLJKWO\ KLJKHU VDOHV DPRXQW RI ³ WDHOV SOXV GROODUVIRU0U6FKXPSHWHUIRUKLVLQYHVWPHQWLQ WKH FRQVXODWH¶V EDWKURRP ¿WWLQJV´ DQG VLJQHG QH[W WRWKHR൶FLDOVWDPSVRIWKH&KLQHVHSDUW\WKH'XWFK legations, and the "Austrian consulate, Tientsin", responsible on the contract **(Fig. 71)**ZKLOHKHKLPVHOI ³WRRNSHUVRQDOFKDUJHRIWKHFRQVXODWHDUFKLYHV´DQG ³ZDLWHGIRUIXUWKHULQVWUXFWLRQV´ With his last let-WHU RQ WKH ODVW GD\ RI WKH \HDU RI %DXHU UHported that he had handed over "all business mate-ULDOWKHR൶FHLQYHQWRU\DQGDOOGHSRVLWVDVZHOODV WKH DUFKLYHV RI WKH VKXWGRZQ NXN FRQVXODWH DQG WKH\$XVWULDQZHOIDUHRUJDQLVDWLRQIRUWKHSULVRQHUVRI war [*Kriegsgefangenenfürsorge*] in Vladivostok, [as ZHOO DV@ WKH OHWWHU RI K\SRWKHFDWLRQ >*Verpfändungsurkunde*@ RI WKH +RWXQJ &RQVWUXFWLRQ &RP-SDQ\DQGWKHHVWDWHRI-%UXQQHU >«@WR9LFH&RQ-VXO5ROI\*H\OLQJ´

While this purchase contract made it possible to KDQGEDFNWKHPRVWSURPLQHQWSK\VLFDOHYLGHQFHRI WKH \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ FRQFHVVLRQ WR LQGHSHQGHQW China, the consulate's operational memory was repatriated to Austria. In this 'global back-translation' ² IURP *in-situ* working documents in the concession into archival material back in the motherland — WKHJUHDWREOLYLRQDZDLWLQJWKH+DEVEXUJV¶RQO\SUR-MHFW LQ WKH )DU (DVW RQO\ GHHSHQHG 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKH FRKHVLRQ RI WKH ZULWWHQ UHSRUWV DQG WKHLU YLVXDO attachments was partly destroyed as they were de-SRVLWHG LQ WZR VHSDUDWH 9LHQQHVH VWRUDJH ORFDWLRQV DW WKH\$XVWULDQ 6WDWH\$UFKLYHV DQG WKH 3LFWXUH\$U-FKLYHVDQG\*UDSKLFV'HSDUWPHQWRIWKH1DWLRQDO/L-EUDU\ ,W LV GXH WR WKLV ¿OLQJ HUURU WKDW WKH PRVW promi nent visual document — the rediscovered pho-WRJUDSKLFDOEXP*c.*ZLWKLWVZULWWHQGHVFULSWLRQ DQG DPDS² ZDV QRW FURVVUHIHUHQFHGWRWKH UHOH-YDQW ZULWWHQ ¿OHV DQG WKXV HVFDSHG WKH QRWLFH RI LQWHUQDWLRQDOUHVHDUFKXQWLOWRGD\,WLVWKHSUHVHQW ERRN¶VDPELWLRQWRWU\DQGUHXQLWHVRPHHOHPHQWVRI these written and visual sources.

,Q WKH \HDU ZKHQ WKH \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ FRQVXODWH EXLOGLQJV ZHUH ¿QDOO\ VROG 6XQ <DWVHQ¶V IDPRXV FODLP WKDW &KLQD VWLOO ZDV D ³K\SRFRORQ\ DQGDVODYHWRPDQ\FRXQWULHV´TXRWHGLQ0DULQHOOL ZDV VWLOOD IDFWDURXQG7LHQWVLQLWV³K\ per-colonial" setting — "divided among multiple LPSHULDOLVPV´ DV 5XWK 5RJDVNL UHIRUPXODWHG LW  ² HQGXUHG 7KH FRQFHVVLRQV RI )UDQFH ,WDO\ DQG -DSDQ UHPDLQHG LQWDFW XQWLO WKH HQG RI :RUOG:DU,,LQ±**(Fig. 72)**. Finally, the city ZDV µOLEHUDWHG¶ E\ WKH 5HG\$UP\ LQ DQG WKH 3HRSOH¶V 5HSXEOLF RI &KLQD ZDV SURFODLPHG LQ WKH same year. It is this political tipping point that we applied throughout the book to change the imperial-LVWHUD GHQRPLQDWLRQ RI *Tientsin* into a designation IRUDSRVWLPSHULDOLVWDQGOLEHUDWHGFLW\*Tianjin*.

:KDW IROORZHG ZDV DOPRVW D KDOIFHQWXU\ RI D SRVW0DRLVW UHDGLQJ RI IRUPHU FRQFHVVLRQ FLWLHV VXFK DV 6KDQJKDL RU 7LHQWVLQ DV VLWHV RI LQWHUQDtional imperialism, national shame, and humiliation. +RZHYHU D JUDGXDO ³XQGRLQJ WKH FRORQLDO FLW\´ LQ WKH PLGV :HVWHUQ FI %HUQVWHLQ  OHG WR 7LDQMLQ REWDLQLQJ WKH µ1DWLRQDO )DPRXV +LVtorical and Cultural City' label. Then, in the early VWKHFLW\¶VFRQWHVWHGFRQFHVVLRQKLVWRU\VORZO\ turned into cultural heritage within a truly global IUDPHZRUN

 <sup>++6</sup>W\$\$5)3DXO%DXHUWRWKH%XQGHVNDQ]OHUDPW7LHQWVLQ\$SULO2WKHUVRXUFHVVSHOOWKHEX\HUDVÄ-L-LQ]KDL³

 <sup>++6</sup>W\$\$5)3DXO%DXHUWRWKH%XQGHVNDQ]OHUDPW7LHQWVLQ0D\

 <sup>++6</sup>W\$\$5)3DXO%DXHUWRWKH%XQGHVNDQ]OHUDPW7LHQWVLQ'HFHPEHU5ROI\*H\OLQJZDVDQ\$XVWULDQDUFKLWHFW ZKRKDG³DUULYHGDQ7LDQMLQYLD6LEHULDLQDQGWKHUHKHZRUNHGXQWLOKLVGHDWKLQ´.|JHO,QDPXFK PRUHIDPRXV\$XVWULDQDUFKLWHFW\$GROI/RRVZRXOGVHQGLQZLWKRXW¿QDOVXFFHVVDVHWRIGUDZLQJVIRUDODUJHEXLOGLQJFRPSOH[ RIWKH³&KLQD3HUPDQHQW,QWHUQDWLRQDO7UDGH([KLELWLRQ´VHH5XNVFKFLR6FKDFKHO±

**Fig. 72** Map of Tientsin published in 1945 by the U.S. Army Map Service [Wikipedia Commons]

### **4. The former Austro-Hungarian concession as part of a global heritage theme park?**

While the "changing basis of legitimacy of the PRC" (People's Republic of China) since the late 1990s is located in a change of strategy "from socialist ideology to cultural heritage" ['cultural heritage' in Chinese was translated as *wenhua yichan*] (Madsen 2014), this turn has touched upon three temporalities. Certainly, instrumentalising the past to stabilise the present towards a better future has been a (self-) civilising mission-strategy in nation-building all over the world from the nineteenth century onwards (Falser 2015). However, China's enforced global competition at the turn of the new millennium produced a new heritage regime, which has captured the interest of many researchers since the last decade. Certainly, this last chapter is not meant to come to a GH¿QLWHDQGRYHUDOOMXGJHPHQWDERXWWKHSUHVHQWKHU-LWDJLVDWLRQ SURFHVV DFURVV 7LDQMLQ WKH SROLWLFV DQG business of cultural heritage in the city are far too complex and multi-layered, especially for a Western foreigner with no knowledge of Chinese and no ac-FHVVWRWKHFLW\¶VGHYHORSPHQWDJHQGDEHORZWKHR൶ cial surface. Rather, I intend to take up some already established observations recently made by Chinese and international researchers and re-group them, after a short *tour d'horizon* of other areas, around my own case study of the former Austro-Hungarian con-FHVVLRQDVDSUHVHQWGD\VSRWRIWRXULVWLFFRPPRGL¿ cation. Together with my 2018 photographic documentation about the physical appearance of former concession areas today (including the Italian, British DQG )UHQFK RQHV , KRSH WR R൵HU D VHOHFWLRQ RI specu lations which, ideally, could be taken up by other international researchers, in particular Chinese RQHVZKRHQMR\HDVLHUDFFHVVWRWKHORFDO G\QDPLFV RI7LDQMLQ

From a general viewpoint about the new relevance of the cultural heritage sector in China, several studies have already pointed to the fact that many local Chinese authorities were motivated to appropriate "heritage as improvement" slogans 2DNHV  DV DQ H൵HFWLYHWRRO RI JRYHUQDQFHWR enhance social cohesion, use "heritage policies as SDUWRIWKHH൵RUWRIPRGHUQL]DWLRQDQGGHYHORSPHQW´ (Harrell 2013, 287), and attract foreign investment both to help build up the newly created heritage environments and then attract (inter)national tourists to come and experience these. In the past ten years, numerous edited volumes, such as *Heritage Politics in China* (Blumenfeld & Silverman 2013) or *Chinese Heritage in the Making* (Maags & Svensson 2018),130 have helped map out a full set of these QHZO\ IDEULFDWHG DQG KLJKO\ FRQWHVWHG FRQ¿JXUDtions. Sometimes they embed contradictory meanings, ranging from the intangible heritage of "reinvented traditions" (after Hobsbawm & Ranger 1983) to shifting representation modes in museums and commemorative sites. Moreover, those new developments may result in the simultaneous production of urban renaissance and re-imagination, punctual architectural conservation next to often blatant destruction of 'authentic' architectural fabric, and instyle façade reconstructions alongside full-scale inventions. I would like to propose as a working hypothesis that *all* of these variations have turned IRUPHUFRQFHVVLRQDUHDVLQ7LDQMLQLQWRKLJKO\LQWHUesting, but also slightly uneasy hybrids to be studied, read and contextualised.

The post-1990s economic transformation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has also turned previously socialist urban planning schemes into almost capitalistic ones, and those centred most prominently around the deltas of the Pearl River and Yang-W]H5LYHULQ&KLQD¶VVRXWKDQGHDVWZLWKWKHIRUPHU colony of Hong Kong and Shanghai's former concession site) and the Bohai Bay (in the north, with %HLMLQJDQGWKHODUJHUSRUWDUHDLQDQGDURXQG7LDQ-MLQKDYHEHFRPHYHULWDEOHKRWVSRWV(YHQLIWKLVLGHological shift can also be observed in the case of 7LDQMLQWKH DPELYDOHQW HYHQ -DQXVIDFHG QDWXUH RI the entangled process of devaluation *and* revaluation of concessional architecture and urban space predates the 1990s. As we will show through a prominent case in the former Austro-Hungarian concession, Chinese elites had already discovered conces-VLRQ DUHDV IRU WKHLU RZQ KRXVLQJ SURMHFWV LQ WKH context of the 1911 revolutionary upheavals and the post-WWI decolonisation process (see below). This continued, in spite of dramatic regime changes, over the following decades: in the post-1949 liberation HUD WKURXJK WR WKH ODWH 0DRLVW SHULRG 7LDQMLQ¶V concession past was often labelled as feudal and im-

 <sup>130</sup> See the introduction, "Mapping the Chinese heritage regime" (Maags & Svensson 2018, 11–38) for an overview of the immense amount of recent heritage studies about the Chinese context, both in Chinese and English, which cannot all be analysed and TXRWHGLQWKLV¿QDOFKDSWHU

perialistic backwardness, and in some areas (as in the former Italian and Austro-Hungarian concessions) commercial activities decreased, and the building stock was gradually abandoned, decayed and was eventually demolished. Nevertheless, some elements of concession architecture survived rather well; most prominently in the former French and British concessions, some banks and department stores continued to operate in their commercial functions while many buildings were repurposed by CCP elites (the British Club became an elite CCP club), DQG R൶FHUV RI WKH 3/\$ 3HRSOH¶V /LEHUDWLRQ\$UP\ of the later Communist Party) were given former concession homes (such as in the *Wudado* area, see below).

Researchers have already stated that the 'story of WKH QHZDQGROG¶ DOUHDG\ WRRN R൵ ZLWK GHFRQVWUXFtion and reconstruction in the late 1990s, when urban developers also discovered the legacy of the "Western-style villas […] in the post-treaty port Tianjin" (LaCouture 2010, compare with LaCouture 2021). However, the strategic branding strategy of Tianjin as a truly global and cosmopolitan city must be dated to the post-2000 years. As Chinese researchers have also noticed, this has helped transcribe the urban and architectural legacy of the concession era "from a symbol of imperialistic penetration into a site of cultural heritage" (Hong 2018). Two initiatives in this direction can be mentioned here: in 2004, Tianjin celebrated its 600th birthday and books such as "Tianjin Image" [*Tianjin yinxiang*] or exhibitions such as "Tianjin seen through a hundred years of China" [*Zhonghua bainian kan Tianjin*] in the Tianjin Museum of Modern History [*Jindai Tianjin Bowuguan*@DTXDVLSULYDWHHQWHUSULVHDQGQHLWKHU DQDFDGHPLFQRUDQR൶FLDOFLW\YHQWXUHVXPPDULVHG the story line not only for the local public, but also for the increasing number of international visitors to the city.

Although these examples are useful when studying the commercialisation and politicisation of heritage as such, I am, of course, particularly interested in the physical transformation of still-standing historical parts of Tianjin's former concession areas. In this regard, the concessions' historical access to the ÀXYLDOWUDQVSRUWLQIUDVWUXFWXUHFDPHWRWKH IRUHIURQW again, and their 'panoramic' reinvention resulted into what I would like to call here a *world's fair-like cultural heritage theme park*, evoking an atmosphere of 'cosmopolitan Tianjin'; after all, it is no accident that it is often called a "permanent 'Exhibition of World Architecture'" — *wanguo jianzhu bolanhui*).131 In this process, the *Hai River Waterfront Comprehensive Development and Transformation Project* (cf. the *Haihe Conservancy Commission* one hundred years earlier) was a major player. It picked up speed since 2003 when Dai Xianglong (ex-governor of the Bank of China and good friend of Wen Jiabao, a native of Tianjin and China's Prime Minister between 2003 and 2013) became the city's mayor (cf. &KDX൵HUW<YDUWHWDO

What I conceptualise as a (Hobsbawmian) 'reinvention of tradition' means here that not only a good number of key historical monuments from the concession era itself are still visible, and is being restored, but that recent additions have often been carried out in an approximate 'in-style' manner. This will become clearer when looking at some of the photographs taken during my 2018 visit to Tianjin. Passing the former concession areas of the German Empire **(Figs. 73a,b)** and Great Britain **(Figs. 74a,b)** to the south and France in the centre **(Fig. 75a,b)**, we approach 'our' case study, Austria-Hungary's former concession land, in the northern section (facing WKH HTXDOO\ UHLQYHQWHG µWUDGLWLRQDO &KLQHVH &LW\¶ WR the west, **Figs. 76a,b**). What happens there is best introduced through its previously neighbouring concession, Italy, which has already been extensively studied with regard to the aforementioned recent 'heritagisation' process across the city **(Figs. 77a,b)**. Since 2000, the Tianjin municipal government has been turning the former Italian concession into *Yishifengqingqu* (literally: 'scenic area in the Italian style'). Critical architectural historians in the last GHFDGHLQWHUSUHWWKLVDV³DQ,WDOLDQÀDYRXUHGDULVWRcratically tinged, business park with Chinese characteristics, […] striving to obliterate the colonial past, and aiming at marketing the former colonial buildings in order to attract foreign and wealthy domestic customers" (Marinelli 2009, 419; cf. Zhang & Liu 2013, Zhu 2015, Marinelli 2018, Lu & Mengin 2020).

 <sup>131</sup> Taking up this reference to World's Fairs is interesting when comparing the historical and reinvented panoramic representations of the concessions along Tianjin's Hai River with the ephemeral display of the 'rue des nations' at the *Exposition universelle* of Paris in 1900; various 'national' pavilions were built in their distinctive architectural languages, while those nations' colonial possessions, from Africa to Asia, constituted an exotic display at 'Colonial Exhibitions' such as in Paris 1931 (cf. Falser 2020, vol. I, 281–339).

**Figs. 73a,b** Old depictions and/or postcards of the concession period alongside new photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018: *Deutscher Klub* in the former German concession in Tientsin (above, on a historic postcard); today in Tianjin, the *Concordia Club* is bordered to the left by a much higher new Chinese building with a stylised clock tower (below). [ Dubreuil private collection; Michael Falser, 2018]

**Figs. 74a,b** Old depictions and/or postcards of the concession period alongside new photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018: The Victoria Park, Gordon Hall and the *Astor House Hotel* in the former British concession in Tientsin (above, as depicted in Drake's *Map and short description of Tientsin* of 1900), and the former Astor Hotel today enlarged on the right side by new Chinese 'in-style' additions (below). [Drake 1900, no page; Michael Falser, 2018]

**Figs. 75a,b** Old depictions and/or postcards of the concession period alongside new photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018: An old postcard of the *Concession française* (above), and a completely new Chinese riverfront in Tianjin today, TXRWLQJWKHSDVWÀDLURI7LHQWVLQ¶VIRUPHU)UHQFKFRQFHVVLRQRQWKHVDPHVSRWEHORZ>'XEUHXLOSULYDWHFROOHFWLRQ0LFKDHO)DOVHU 2018]

**Figs. 76a,b** Old depictions and/or postcards of the concession period alongside new photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018: An old postcard depicting the "Chinese City" gate (above), and the new "Chinese gate to the old Chinese town" clashing with apartment skyscrapers from presumably the same period in the 2000s (below). [Bristol University collection; Michael Falser, 2018]

**Figs. 77a,b** Old depictions and/or postcards of the concession period alongside new photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018: An older postcard of the Italian concession (above), and the recently reinvented Marco Polo 6TXDUHRIWKHIRUPHU,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQDQGLWVQHZO\UHFRQVWUXFWHGIRXQWDLQZLWKLWVFROXPQDQGDFURZQLQJJRGGHVVRI peace, today holding a politically correct olive branch instead of the original sword (below). [Bristol University collection; Michael Falser, 2018]

When the 'renovation-cum-reinvention process' of exotic Italy was initiated by the local government in WKH KRSH WKDW ,WDOLDQ ¿UPV ZRXOG LQYHVW LQWR D 6Lno-Italian joint venture, it was combined with the "relocation of 5000 families" and the closure of local IDFWRULHVRUVKRSV +RQJ±TXRWLQJ=KRQJ 2009), leading to local protest — a topic about which Chinese researchers, in particular, critically published.132 :KLOH WKH PHDQWWREHSLFWXUHVTXH IDoDGH reconstructions around illustrious Marco Polo Plaza DQG'DQWH6TXDUH*de facto* turned the spot into a ghost town at night (the renovated Italian concession stood empty for many years), it was opened to the public in 2011, designated a four-star tourist attraction in glossy promotional publications, and advertised as a site of 'Historical and Stylistic Architecture of Tianjin' by the municipal government in 2013.133 In this context, the new-old cultural heritage theme park of 'Little Ita ly' became an important part of the 'to-be-continued' (and rather re-invented) concession-time success story of modernisation, cosmopolitanism, international cooperation and, even, multilateral friendship.

Within this promoted success story of 'global Tianjin', we can see that the narrative of 'historical Tientsin' as a — supposedly — productive interna-WLRQDO FRQWDFW ]RQH EHWZHHQ SURUHIRUP 4LQJ R൶- FLDOV OLNH/L+RQJ]KDQJLQWKH VWR<XDQ6KLkai) and Western powers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century also resurfaced as a *topos* in Chinese research and local development strategies: ¿UVWLQDQDHVWKHWLFVHQVHDVD²VXSSRVHGO\²LQtellectual platform where external and international modernisation schemes had been exchanged (Hong 2018);134 and, second, in a physical sense, when concrete heritage promotions highlighted those urban sites where — supposedly — active or retired Qing R൶FLDOVDQGPHPEHUVRIWKH&KLQHVHLPSHULDOIDPLO\ built up their hybrid-style 'small foreign villas' (or *xiao yang lou*). As we shall see, these places were now not only being rediscovered, but even reinvented. In order to illustrate the second observation, ,ZRXOGOLNHWRFRQFOXGHWKLV¿QDOFKDSWHUZLWKWZR cases that will lead us from former British concessions all the way back to 'our' Austro-Hungarian concession.

The *Five Avenues Historic District* (*Wudadao*) in the former British concession, with its hundreds of suburban villas, counts today as the most prominent urban heritage section of Tianjin, one where the above-mentioned Janus-faced devaluation/revaluation process becomes visible. While Chinese research does mention the previously pejorative, Communist labelling of the areas as an "imperialist breeding ground and hiding place for Qing nobles, ZDUORUGV DQG EXUHDXFUDWV´ <DQJ WR +RQJ 2018),135 we know that the villas continued to be va lued as precious living spaces through all the various regime changes over the last hundred years. As a FRQVHTXHQFHWKH\VXUYLYHGSK\VLFDOO\JUDGXDOO\EHcame a point of pride and today are being turned into an architectural heritage *parcours* (cf. Liu, Butler & Zhang 2019; Lu & Mengin 2020).

In this game, the historically almost forgotten and little researched Austro-Hungarian concession plays a small (but as I claim here, instructive) role. The fa-PRXV<XDQ6KLNDLKDVHYHQEHHQWXUQHGKHUHLQWRD XVHIXO¿JXUHWREULGJHWKHSDVWDQGWKHSUHVHQWLIKH LQGHHG KDG UHSHDWHGO\ VKRZQD VSHFL¿FLQWHUHVWDQG anecdotal presence in the Austro-Hungarian concession during his lifetime until his death in 1916 (e. g., signing the concession contract in 1903, opening the consulate in 1905, and supervising the "Austrian bridge" of 1906, see above), his legacy as Tientsin's great 'inter-national' cultural broker and political moderniser also needed to be revived on a physical and permanent basis. As we shall see below, 'his villa' was indeed 'located' and turned into the most UHOHYDQW VHOOLQJSRLQW IRUWKHWRXULVWLFFRPPRGL¿FD-

 <sup>132</sup> In this context, critical voices, such as the famous Tianjin writer Feng Jicai, backed 'real' urban heritage preservation against the authorised destruction of a number of age-old neighbourhoods and districts such as the Southern City/*Nanshi* (Feng in 2000/1, TXRWHGLQ=KDQJ+RQJ0DULQHOOL

 <sup>133</sup> Maurizio Marinelli termed this Tianjin's strategy of a "past-presentness of the metropolis's globalizing ambitions" (Marinelli 2018, 217). 134 The so-called *Self-Strengthening Movement*DOVR NQRZQDV)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV0RYHPHQWZDVD¿UVW VHULRXV R൶FLDOHQGHDYRXUWR

OHDUQIURPWKH:HVWZLWKDVHULHVRISURPLQHQWSURUHIRUP4LQJR൶FLDOVWREHDSSRLQWHGDVJRYHUQRUJHQHUDOVRI=KLOLQRZ+H-EHL3URYLQFH IURP/L+RQJ]KDQJLQWKHVWR<XDQ6KLNDL2UDV&KLQHVH UHVHDUFK IUDPHGLW³7KHFRH[LVWHQFHRI IRUHLJQ SRZHUV¶SUHVHQFHDQGDFWLYLWLHVZLWKLQWKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOPRGHUQL]DWLRQYHQWXUHVZLWKLQWKHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHWZR¿UVW&KL-

nese railway, postal service, stamps and newspaper), forged a new identity for Tianjin" (Hong 2018, 72). 135 "Five Great Avenues" (*wudadao*VX൵HUHGGDPDJHGXULQJDQGDIWHUWKH&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ±ZKHQ&RPPXQLVWUKHWRULF labelled the former foreign concessions "not only as the breeding ground for foreign imperialist's running dogs and slaves but also DVKLGLQJSODFHVIRUGLVSODFHG4LQJQREOHVZDUORUGVDQGEXUHDXFUDWVLQWKHLUFRQVSLUDF\WRGLYLGHDQGFRQWURO&KLQD´<DQJ 39–40; translated in Hong 2018, 78).

**Figs. 78a,b** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession: Above: A view from the north-west of the former 'Chinese' side across the river towards the former Austro-Hungarian concession: the surviving 'Austrian Bridge' stands in the middle ground and the concession itself in the background to the left-hand side. Below: A view across the 'Austrian Bridge' towards the former Austro-Hungarian concession; its former, white consulate building is in the background to the right-hand side.

**Fig. 79b** 

**Figs. 79a-c** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession: **79a:** The newly reconstructed 'Austrian church' in the former Austro-Hungarian concession, together with a new monument in old European style commemorating the "1948 Beijing & Tianjin Liberation Battle", as the attached plate puts it; **79b:** A recent view across the Salzach River in the Austrian city of Salzburg showing a suspension bridge and the Protestant Church on the right-hand side; **79c:** The Protestant Church in the Austrian city of Salzburg

[Michael Falser 2018, 2020].

tion of a new, massive *Austrian Style Riverfront* where once only a few, small-scaled 'original' structures of the short-lived Austro-Hungarian concession stood, along the Hai River.

<HW KRZ VKRXOG ZH DSSURDFK WKH IRUPHU \$XVtro-Hungarian concession today in the absence of any detailed plan of the overall area? While acknowledging that further architectural studies should be initiated as a next step, similarly to those already underway for the British and French concessions, I propose to conclude this chapter with a snapshot of the current situation. To this end, I decided to use photographs taken during my short visit of the site in late 2018 — one hundred years after the concession's dissolution in 1917 in the context of World War I — and set them in direct relation to the above-mentioned rediscovered primary source, namely, the *c.*1911-report with its map and 115 black-and-white photograph illustrations.

Thus, during a sunny early-December day of 2018, my tour started on the former 'Chinese side' of the Hai River looking south-east towards the former Austro-Hungarian concession **(Fig. 78a)**: in the foreground, a new four-lane highway, in the middle ground the old 'Austrian bridge' of 1905, converted from a swing bridge (see Appendix Ill. 13, 92) into a VWUXFWXUH RQ ¿[HG S\ORQV ,Q WKH EDFNJURXQG was a disturbing mix of recent megalomaniac instyle building blocks along the waterfront (see Appendix Ill. 86, 87) and skyscrapers on the far horizon. Walking closer to the bridge **(Fig. 78b)**, one could see the former consulate building being dwarfed by giant apartment high-rises in the background.

On the left-hand side, adjoining to a brand new, VXSSRVHGO\ LQVW\OH TXRWDWLRQ RI D FKXUFK EXLOGLQJ **(Fig. 79a)**. Only detailed research in Austria brought the 'authentic' source to light: combined with an iron suspension bridge over the local river, the historicist brick building of the *Protestant Christ-Church* in Salzburg, built in 1863–67 **(Figs. 79b,c)**, served as an artistically much more elaborate model for this VFDOHGLVWRUWHG DQG GHWDLOÀDWWHQHG UHFRQVWUXFWLRQLQ the 2000s, the Chinese authorship of which could QRWEHLGHQWL¿HG\HWIRUWKLVUHVHDUFK

But this is not yet the full story: some commemo-UDWLYHYDOXHKDVEHHQDGGHGWRWKLVDUWL¿FLDOROGQHZ bridge-church ensemble, in order to transform it into a Chinese *lieu de mémoire* (after Pierre Nora). A new VLJQSRVW RQDWRWDOO\ QHZ VTXDUHZLWKD VXUSULVLQJO\ conventional triumphal monument in old European style in front of the faked Austrian church, refers to its concession-era construction, but also as a spot where military forces of the PLA (People's Liberation Army of the later Communist Party) supposedly joined in the context of the "1948 Beijing & Tianjin Liberation Battle". It concludes thus: "Jintang Bridge is a symbol building of Tianjin liberation with double value of cultural relic and historical memory. In 1984, Jintang Bridge was ranked as Tianjin's protected cultural relic and patriotism education base".

From the bridge, a good perspective opens up towards the former consulate as a still white, but mutilated structure **(Fig. 80a)**: its overall cubage and all its façades have been remodelled (see Appendix Ill. 3, 4), its original riverside-oriented main entry closed and over-mounted with a kitschy, larger-thanlife relief of the Viennese Waltz-playing Johann Strauss (1825–1899) **(Fig. 80b)**. As if this was not HQRXJK WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ SODWHV DW WKH QHZ VTXDUH VLGH HQWUDQFH RI WKH EXLOGLQJ ZKLFK LV WRGD\ R൶ cially listed, are misleading as regards date and period, original position, and authenticity **(Fig. 80c)**. 136 In the meantime, the consulate's former secretariat building has vanished (see Appendix Ill. 5, 9) without any comment or indication on the small site map.

Continuing the photographic survey of 2018 into the former concession area along the former Baron Czikann Street, one passes the old brick entrance to the historical covered market **(Fig. 81a)**; its overall silhouette, relief, glass-walled entry and surrounding urban setting (see Appendix Ill. 17) have been remodelled (or is it a totally new structure?). A good example of the gradual blurring of conceptual boundaries between authentic, original, transgenerational 'historic monuments' on the one side, and their prestige-and-image-oriented simulacra on the other,

 <sup>136</sup> One information board in misspelt French and English dates the period of existence of the "Original consulate of Austria-Hungary": "August 1869 to September 1899" (it actually opened, as explained above, on 22 September 1905, and was *sensu stricto* in diplomatic operation until 14 August 1917, when the Chinese declared war to Austria-Hungary). A second plate in Chinese dis-SOD\VDVLWHPDSRIWKHRULJLQDOSRVLWLRQEXWFRQFHDOVLWVRULJLQDOO\WZLQHGFRQ¿JXUDWLRQZLWKDYDQLVKHGVHFUHWDULDWEXLOGLQJ)L-QDOO\DWKLUGERDUGZLWKJROGHQOHWWHUVRQDEODFNEDFNJURXQGFODVVL¿HVWKH³)RUPHU\$XVWULDQ&RQVXODWH´DWWKHOHYHORI³,PSRUtant protection" within the "Historical and Stylistic Architecture of Tianjin" programme of the Tianjin Municipal People's Government. Thus, it simulates the protection of a building, the originality and authenticity of which have *de facto* been lost to a considerable extent.

awaits us further down, where the new quote of a supposedly 'historical' gate leads to the "Wealth Mansions" **(Fig. 81b)**, a nearby cluster of giant gated-community towers.

Walking on takes us to one of the many helpless scenarios where the quoting of old imperial European (this time not Austrian, but French) grandeur actually turns into abandoned postmodern assemEODJHV RI XUEDQ UHQDLVVDQFH LQ¿OOV 7KH RULJLQDO Fountain of Apollo (*c*.1670) at the Versailles Castle near Paris has made its global journey as a replica not only to the 1992 Chimei Museum in China's ren-HJDGH7DLZDQ RUWRWKH µ6N\&LW\¶ GHYHORSPHQW RI suburban Hangzhou in 2007 (together with a repli-FDWHG(L൵HO7RZHUEXWDOVRDVDUDWKHUORZTXDOLW\ UHSOLFDWR7LDQMLQ**(Fig. 81c)**.

**Figs. 80a-c** 3KRWRJUDSKVWDNHQE\0LFKDHO)DOVHULQ7LDQMLQLQ'HFHPEHULQWKHIRUPHU\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ **80a:**7KHSUHVHQWFRQGLWLRQRIWKHIRUPHU\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQVXODWHLQ7LHQWVLQVHHQIURPWKHVWLOOVWDQGLQJµ\$XVWULDQ%ULGJH¶**80b:** \$QHZGHFRUDWLYHIDoDGHHOHPHQWRQWKHZHVWHUQVLGHRIWKHIRUPHU\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQVXODWHDUHOLHIRI\$XVWULD¶VIDPRXVµ:DOW] .LQJ¶-RKDQQ6WUDXVVFRPSDUHZLWK)LJE**80c:**\$VHULHVRIFRPPHPRUDWLYHDQGH[SOLFDWRU\VLJQERDUGVDWWDFKHGWRWKHIRUPHU Austro-Hungarian consulate.

>0LFKDHO)DOVHU@

**Fig. 81a Fig. 81b** 

**Fig. 81c** 

**Figs. 81a-c** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession:

**81a:** The present condition of the market hall in the former Austro-Hungarian concession (compare with Fig. 56d). **81b:** Historicised new entry gate to the 'Wealth Mansions' high-rise, somewhere inside the former Austro-Hungarian concession. **81c:** An empty fountain with dull replicas of the famous Fountain of Apollo at the Versailles Castle near Paris.

[Michael Falser, 2018]

While open-access Internet platforms like *Love-Pik* circulate impressive aerial photographs **(Fig. 82)**  with misleading headings such as "Old buildings in Tianjin concession area", headlines like "Day trip to Tianjin is historical journey" in the Chinese newspaper *China Daily* in 2011 propagate this vista with the caption: "Austro-Hungarian architecture lines Tianjin's Hai River" (Morgan 2011) (see the illustration in the Preface). When I took the same view in 2018 from a new bridge further down across the Hai River (in the meanwhile more skyscrapers were built in the far horizon), looking back towards the north-east along the former riverfront (the 'Austrian bridge' is visible on the far left-hand side), the giant in-style complex built in the post-2000 years became more visible **(Fig. 83a)**. It is now part of a reinvented "for-PHU+DEVEXUJTXD\ZKLFKWRGD\FRQVWLWXWHVWKHQHZ 'Austrian Style Riverfront'" (Jovanovic 2020, 100) and possesses, it must be admitted here, the undeni-DEOHTXDOLWLHVRIDQRSHQFDUIUHHSHGHVWULDQIULHQGO\ space of urban renaissance **(Fig. 83b)**. However, a close-up inspection only reveals a sad series of late +DEVEXUJVW\OHGTXRWDWLRQVIURP9LHQQD¶V*Gründerzeit* buildings both before and after 1900 **(Fig. 83c)**.

**Fig. 82** An aerial view (provided by the internet platform *Lovepik*) of the newly constructed 'Austrian riverside', with high-rises in the background and the only 'original' building — the former Austro-Hungarian consulate — in the foreground. To the left, the newly EXLOWµ\$XVWULDVW\OHG¶FKXUFKLQWKHPLGGOHJURXQGRQWKHULJKWKDQGVLGHHGJHRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKWKHVRFDOOHG<XDQ6KLNDL+RXVH (compare with Fig. 84b) [Lovepik: 'Old Buildings in Tianjin Concession area', retrieved 12.2020]

**Fig. 83b** 

**Fig. 83c** 

**Figs. 83a-c** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession:

**83a:** A view from the bridge in the south-west towards the former Austro-Hungarian concession. **83b,c:** Views along the newly created 'Austrian Style Riverfront' (above), and newly 'Habsburg-styled' buildings (below) [Michael Falser, 2018]

**Fig. 83a** 

However, while on the path along the riverfront towards the north, another 'historical' ensemble comes into view: if we compare my photographic view across the river (see Fig. 83a) with an undated photography of the same view, probably taken around 1920 **(Fig. 84a)** WKH ¿UVW PRUH LPSRVLQJ house to the right is a currently publicised highlight **(Fig. 84b)**: golden letters on a historical information board (most probably itself dating from a city government historic preservation project from the early 2000s)137 announce that it was "The Former Residence of Mr Yuan", currently graded as "Very Important Protection" **(Fig. 84c)**. At this point of playing a cat-and-mouse game with Tianjin's concession history and the reinvented legacy of the great Chinese moderniser Yuan Shikai in the name of the FLW\¶V µLQWHUQDWLRQDO¶ DQG FRVPRSROLWDQ ÀDLU VHH above), we realise that authentic sites, wishful reconstructions, or even complete inventions overlap and even contradict each other (cf. Hong 2019). What a US-American scholar in the early 1980s photographed and interpreted as a "baroque Salzburg"-styled mansion (which at that time was "used for the Mu An Middle School", see Western 1985, 342) was described as "designed by British and German architects for Yuan Shikai in 1908 in the British Queen Anne Style [and] listed as a historical building in 1985 by the Tientsin Municipal Government" according to a Chinese PhD thesis in the mid-1990s (Fang 1995, 161–3). Until today (Nield 2015)138 the building has been advertised in local and international city guides as a highlight under the name: "Yuan Shikai House" (Lu & Mengin 2020). However, having found neither any historical photographs nor any written evidence from the Austro-Hungarian concession era for the present research, I would argue that the proposed construction date of 1908 sounds rather unlikely.

Moreover, W.U. Yanlong's publication *A panorama of the historic architecture in Tianjin* (2007) tells yet another story. This time, the myth of 'Yuan Shikai living in the villa' has been changed into "Former residence of the Yuan Family" (in the entry heading) but re-introduced through the backdoor in the descriptive text: "The *Former Residence of Yuan Shikai* [sic] was built in 1918 [when he had already been dead for two full years, MF] under the supervision of Yuan Naikuan, nephew of Yuan Shikai, […] a supporter for his uncle to restore the monarchy, served once as Minister of Agriculture and Commerce [and] moved to Tianjin after his retirement" (Wu 2007, 215). But even this construction date sounds too early when considering that such a prominent house was not even mentioned in Rasmussen's famous *Illustrated History of Tientsin* of 1925.139

It is more likely that the building, with its decidedly neo-Renaissance (and not "British Queen Anne") style — somewhere between a south German (cf. Heidelberg's Renaissance structures) and north German *Weser-Renaissance* or Dutch inspiration — was bought as a to-be-developed lot in the mid-1910s by Yuan Ski Kai, but only built on towards the very end of, or shortly after World War I, when the Austrians had already left and the Dutch supervised the former Austro-Hungarian concession. One possible architect for the project may have been the Austrian Siegfried Scheyer who, according to a short obituary in the *Ostasiatische Rundschau* [East Asian Review] of 1 June 1930, was "a well-known Austrian architect and builder, who in the years between 1914 and 1919 made a name for himself while building places for Chinese dignitaries in the Austrian concession".140

 <sup>137</sup> I would like to thank Maurizio Marinelli for this shared information about the project. Unfortunately, my own research could not discover any original material about the context, agency and date of this initiative. 138 Robert Nield, in his *China's foreign places* (2015) stated, that "Yuan Shikai lived here [in the Austro-Hungarian concession] be-

tween 1912 and 1916. His house still stands, looking splendid" (Nield 2015, 249). 139 However, he did mention Tientsin's former Y.M.C.A. building on the west side of Taku Road as being "occupied for many years

by the Yuan Shi-Kai family and then known as 'Yuan Kung Kwan'" (Rasmussen 1925, 253). 140 "Siegfried Scheyer", in: Ostasiatische Rundschau, 11th year, No. 11 (1 June 1930), 368.

**Fig. 84b** 

**Fig. 84a Fig. 84c**

**Figs. 84a-c** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession:

**84a:** Historical photograph (most probably around 1920) of the 'Yuan Shikai Villa', as it is called today (photographed inside the building in December 2018). **84b:**³7KHIRUPHUUHVLGHQFHRI0U<XDQ´DVLWVWDQGVWRGD\LQWURGXFHGE\R൶FLDOVLJQERDUGVHUHFWHGE\ the Tianjin Municipal People's Government. **84c:**2൶FLDOVLJQERDUGLQWURGXFLQJYLVLWRUVWRWKHVRFDOOHG³IRUPHUUHVLGHQFHRI0U Yuan", today a listed building graded "Very important protection".

[Michael Falser, 2018]

**Fig. 85a**

**Fig. 85b** 

**Figs. 85a,b** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession:

**85a:**2SSRVLWHWKHVRFDOOHG³IRUPHUUHVLGHQFHRI0U<XDQ´WKHVRFDOOHG³)HQJ\*XR=KDQJ5HVLGHQFH´DOVRJUDGHG "Very important protection". **85b:** A third, totally new 'historical building' neighbouring the so-called "former residence RI0U<XDQ´

[Michael Falser, 2018]

Seen from an overall standpoint, the "Regulations to Protect Tianjin's Historical Architecture" (fostered by the state and municipality, and promulgated in 2005 by the city's People Congress), the repeated

EXWXQVXFFHVVIXOH൵RUWVWRFDWDSXOWSDUWVRIWKHFRQcessions onto the UNESCO World Heritage List (Debelle & Lu 2014), or even the recent preservation strategies aided by experts (compare Nobuo & Xu DQG'XZLWK7VH.DQJ 5XQJ<L KDYHDOOEHFRPHSDUWDQGSDUFHORIWKHH൵RUWWRWXUQ Tianjin's concession legacy into a veritable 'heritage theme park' (a term which I use after Lowenthal 2002) — a fussy mix of over-restored or heavily EHDXWL¿HGµRULJLQDO¶EXLOGLQJV*and* façade-simulating replicas. The former Austro-Hungarian concession is not exempt from this. While in front of the so-called µ<XDQ 6KLNDL +RXVH¶ WKH VRFDOOHG µ)HQJ \*XR Zhang Residence' **(Fig. 85a)** — HTXDOO\ JUDGHG "Very Important Protection" — may still contain some historical core structure behind its recent 'en-KDQFHPHQW¶WKURXJKDVXSHULPSRVHGVNLQRIIDOVL¿HG SRWHQWLDOO\ UHDO µKLVWRULFDO¶ EXLOGLQJ RI WKH µ<XDQ Shikai House', even if it may not date from the Austro-Hungarian concession era itself **(Fig. 85b)**. The story is not over yet. If we continue walking towards the south along the new 'Austrian Style Riverfront', giant sight fences with colourful renderings of an imaginary aerial perspective (cf. Fig. 5a) announce a new megalomaniac development project **(Fig. 86a)**. At the southern tip of the concession, towards the historical border with the former Italian concession, we reach the culmination point of what I called a veritable world's fair or *heritage theme park atmosphere*. If in the past two decades historical concessions such as those in Tianjin or Shanghai with their still standing, restored, and enhanced architectural legacy — have become "in a sense 'lifestyle showcases' of their respective national identi-

**Fig. 86a** 

<sup>141</sup> 6RXUFHVTXRWHWKHORFDO\$XVWULDQFRQVWUXFWLRQ¿UPRZQHU-RKDQQ%UXQQHUDVWKHH[HFXWLQJDUFKLWHFWRI

**Figs. 86a,b** Photographs taken by Michael Falser in Tianjin in December 2018 in the former Austro-Hungarian concession.

**86a:** Signboard on the giant sight fences of a new vast complex at the southern tip of the former Austro-Hungarian concession (see previous page).

**86b:** A cultural heritage theme park in the newly staged contact zone of two former concessions (Austria-Hungary and Italy) in Tientsin: in front, a copy of a statue of Austria's Waltz King, Johann Strauss (compare with Fig. 80b); in the background, the newly built "Drum Tower in Italian-style town" (in the words of a tourist brochure for Tianjin) as a 'Giotto's Florentine campanile-like stage set' and new landmark.

[Michael Falser, 2018]

**Fig. 87** Screenshot of the internet announcement of the "10th Vienna Culinary Festival, May 2017", featuring a table laden with ' typical' Austrian food in the foreground and the famous, recently re-gilded statue of the Waltz King Johann Strauss (conceived around 1900 and erected in 1921) in Vienna's *Stadtpark* [City Park], self-styled 'world capital of music'. [Internet screenshot, https://vienna-insight.at/blog/2017/04/25, retrieved 12.2020]

ties" for the national and local Chinese touristcum-heritage industry (Marinelli 2010a), then this photographic survey of 2018 culminated in a truly global simulacrum devoid of all historical authenticity. Under exclusively Chinese agency, the cultural heritage stereotypes of Tientsin's two neighbouring IRUPHU FRQFHVVLRQVLV QRZ DUWL¿FLDOO\ EURXJKW EDFN together into one visual contact zone **(Fig. 86b)**: in front of 'Giotto's Florentine campanile-like stage set' and invented new landmark — named "Drum Tower in Italian-style Town" in the glossy *Tianjin*  *Guide* (Tianjin Guide 2018, 33) welcoming visitors to China's 'Little Italy' — Austria's prime musical KHULWDJH¿JXUH-RKDQQ6WUDXVVFI)LJESOD\HG his Viennese waltz in the setting sun of a clear and cold December day in 2018 when I took these photographs. One hundred years after the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin was handed back to China, its reinvented riverfront in today's Tianjin had become a veritable "Fauxstria"142 (Jovanovic 2017/2020).

<sup>142</sup> ³\$W¿UVWWKLVSURGXFWLRQRI µ)DX[VWULD¶ >*faux* in French for 'faked/false' in English] appears to have an anti-colonial tint, as the PDUNHWLQJRIµ(XURSH¶IRUPLGGOHFODVV&KLQHVHFRQVXPHUVSURYLQFLDOL]HVWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDOOHJDF\RIIRUPHUFRORQLDOSRZHUV<HW its very production embodies the logic of imperialist capitalism which binds distant sites of dispossession for the purposes of SUR¿W´-RYDQRYLF

However, it would also be too easy to point an DOOWRR FULWLFDO (XURSHDQ ¿QJHU DW &KLQD¶V ² DQG Tianjin's — recent heritage turn: in a globally entangled and transcultural reciprocity to the city's reinvented past as an international concession, comparable processes have also been taking place in former 'imperialist motherlands' like Italy and Austria. If, in colonial times, concessions were rightly regarded as ³0LQLDWXUHV ZLWK PRGL¿FDWLRQV RI WKH FRXQWULHV WKH\ UHSUHVHQW´ VHHP\RSHQLQJTXRWDWLRQ IURPWKH book by Mrs Burton St. John, *The China Times Guide to Tientsin and Neighbourhood*, 1908), the same holds true for the European heritage industry's tendency to over-commodify their national and cultural capitals today.

In Europe, too, local administrations are trying hard to cater for picture-perfect and camera-ready scenarios of old imperial grandeur for an ever increasing volume of cultural tourism, such as from East Asia. In this sense, *Habsburgs going global* is not only alive and well in Tianjin, but also in my home town: Vienna **(Fig. 87)**.

#### **5. Conclusions**

A theme running through my chapter has been that of paradoxical constellations.

2Q WKH RQH KDQG D YHULWDEOH ERRP LQ VFLHQWL¿F interest for the history of treaty port concessions in China (which lasted from the 1860s to the 1940s) could be detected. This interest does not only concern research in the political, diplomatic, and ('world trade'-related) economic networks of international collaboration, but also in the logistics, tech-QLTXHV DQG LQVWUXPHQWV WKDW ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR SODQ implement, and control the infrastructural, urban, and architectural development of concession systems. All these aspects together, in their micro set-up in concessions around 1900, are often viewed as important founding factors of those entangled processes spanning the world that since the symbolic threshold of 2000 have often been summed up as 'globalisation'.

While mapping out the current status of knowledge about the history and physical afterlife of Tianjin, China's most relevant concession (which assembled nine foreign nations from all over the globe, from Japan and Russia to Europe and the USA), this publication has uncovered a seemingly paradoxical transformative moment: a shift *from Tientsin's con-* *tested history to Tianjin's glorious heritage*. Although Chinese historians continue to take an active part in investigating this foreign-ruled chapter in their 'own' country's recent past, inventive municipal politicians and developers are trying hard to reformulate Tianjin's concession legacy, namely, pan-imperialistic aggression and humiliating exploitation, into a positive, 'to-be-inherited-and-to-be-continued' success story of modernisation, cosmopolitanism, international cooperation and, even, multilateral friendship. This re-LQYHQWLRQ RI D RQFH FRQWHVWHG SDVW WKXV ¿WV LQ ZLWK Tianjin's self-branding ambitions of the present as a global city for the future.

In this great reworking of history, the urban and architectural fabric of the once most impactful concessions of France, Great Britain, and Italy is gradually being turned into a cultural heritage hybrid of restored original monuments, in-style reconstructed façades, and reinvented urban spaces. With the fabric being 'themed' after, or even enhanced with the enduring cultural stereotypes of these former international powers, the overall result may be characterised as a *global theme park atmosphere.*

On the other hand, one small element — the concession of Austria-Hungary — had, so far, been left out of this dual process. What I called here a process *from Tientsin's history to Tianjin's heritage* was VWUXFWXUHGLQDWZRIROGLQTXLU\DWKLVFKDSWHUSUR-YLGHG IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH LQ VFLHQWL¿F UHVHDUFK WKH much-desired missing puzzle piece in the short urban architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession between 1901 and 1917 in Tientsin; and b) it situated its historical fabric within the current 'heritagisation' of the Chinese economic boom city 'global Tianjin'.

)RU WKH ¿UVW ZRUNLQJ VWHS D FRKHUHQW VHW RI sources from Austrian libraries and archives, both written (published and unpublished) and visual (cartographic and photographic) was evaluated to con-WH[WXDOLVH WKH GL൵HUHQW IDFWRUV RI WKH DPELYDOHQW Austro-Hungarian concession project: its political circumstances on the ground (from military occupa-WLRQ DQG XQHTXDO FRQWUDFW LQ ± WR VXUUHQGHU and handover in 1917); its ambivalent press coverage back home (from great fanfare to cartoonish cri-WLTXH FRPSDUHG WR H\HZLWQHVV UHSRUWV IURP +XQgarian and Austrian visitors to the concession; its main Austro-Hungarian actors (from honourable consuls to dubious contractors and tragically absent local investors) and their local counterparts (from YLVLWLQJ \*HQHUDO \*RYHUQRU <XDQ 6KLNDL LQ KLV LP perial grandeur to some 30.000 resisting Chinese residents); its logistical challenges (from peripheral ULYHUTXD\FRQVROLGDWLRQVWRWKHXQSRSXODUUHORFDWLRQ RIJUDYHVRXWRIWKHFRUH]RQHDQG¿QDOO\LWV institutional/legal set-up (from statutes of a construction company to local taxation and even violent expropriation).

\$ERYH DOO IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH VR IDU XQNQRZQ 'spectacular' primary — visual — sources were introduced, depicted and discussed. In addition to many new maps, plans and photographs that I found as attachments to the many letters between actors in the Tientsin concession, the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing, and the European capitals of Vienna DQG %XGDSHVW WKH PRVW LPSRUWDQW ¿QGLQJ ZDV FHUtainly a *c.*1911 bound album of 115 black-and-white SKRWRJUDSKVWRJHWKHUZLWKD¿IWHHQSDJHW\SHZULWWHQ description and a site plan: the Appendix contains WKH ¿UVW IXOO OHQJWK SXEOLFDWLRQ RI WKLV DOEXP SUHsented with its original German legends and my English translations. The entire set of visual material — almost 250 illustrations in my chapter alone was used as a guide to re-contextualise the developmental stages of the Austro-Hungarian concession from its beginning to its end: from establishing the ¿UVWDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWDUFKLWHFWXUDOPDUNHUVRIGLSlomatic presence (the consulate buildings) and of an 'engineered' civilising mission (the new 'Austrian' iron swing bridge, *de facto* party borrowed from a WKLUGSDUW\WRJUHDWHUXUEDQSODQQLQJH൵RUWV HVWDElishing a new 'rational' texture over the pre-existing local Chinese lane system, connecting the concessions to the cross-concession system of water supply, electricity, and public tramway).

However, the photographs not only documented WKHFRPSOHWHGIHZEXLOGLQJVDQGXUEDQJULGRI¿YH E\¿YH VWUHHWVWKH\ UHYHDOHG ULJKW µEHKLQGWKH IHZ shining façades' of the concession, a rather disturbing reality: one of relocated Chinese graves, several expropriated and abandoned buildings, empty plots owing to the lack of (inter-)national investors, social segregation and, worst of all, dirty backstreets where local Chinese inhabitants stand around giant pools of ZDVWHZDWHUKHOSOHVVGXULQJWKHÀRRGLQJFDWDVWURSKH brought about by a typhoon on 30th August 1911 — FOHDUO\DQH൵HFWLYHGUDLQDJHV\VWHPZDVQHYHUVXF-FHVVIXOO\ LQVWDOOHG 7KHVH XQLTXH YLVXDO GRFXPHQWV created around 1911 reveal that the Austro-Hungarian concession, as part of the 'inter-national' set-up in Tientsin, must be evaluated from an overall histori cal perspective as a project of imperialistic hubris, commercial disinterest and as a political failure.

)URP D EURDGHU FRQFHSWXDO YLHZSRLQW WKLV ¿QGing enables us to tweak the all too easily appropriated master narrative — historically as well as currently — about a once successful international concession network in Tientsin and its enduring legacy of a once powerful laboratory for a promising future. In a more nuanced reading of the facts, neither did Tientsin in the concession era exclusively set new standards through "enforced modernisation" (as Austria-Hungary's Consul for Tientsin, Hugo Schumpeter claimed in 1915) or lead to "hygienic modernity" or even to a "revolution" (as current research is framing it, cf. Rogaski 2000 and 2004 with 6LQJDUDYpORX1RUVKRXOG7LHQWVLQ¶VKLVWRU\DV a concession be allowed to be easily exploited and overvalued as a supporting element for Tianjin's (and China's) over-ambitiously staged path into global modernity today.

It is this last facet of the gradual appropriation of *Tientsin's history* after 1900 as *Tianjin's heritage* after 2000 that stood at the centre of the second part of this contribution. The Tientsin-Tianjin nexus was contextualised within China's astonishing transformation from a (late) Maoist socialist ideology (until the 1990s) that downgraded previous international concessions like Shanghai or Tientsin as sites of imperialistic exploitation and national humiliation to a market-oriented ideology that upgraded these concessions, now in the context of almost capitalistic planning schemes (in the 2000s), to the status of once innovative test sites of a global modernity through international cooperation and friendship.

In this context, Tientsin's past as a concession was rediscovered as a 'to-be-inherited-and-continued' legacy of cosmopolitanism by inventive municipal administrators and developers of the current 7LDQMLQ PHJDFLW\ RI VRPH ¿IWHHQ PLOOLRQ SHRSOH² with its outspoken ambition of global outreach. Under the new 'cultural heritage regime', diverse former concession areas are now being systematically 're-discovered, re-activated and re-presented' as sites of progress: well-researched case studies of this process already cover the former British, French and Italian concessions. However, the current fate of Italy's former neighbour, Austria-Hungary's concession, has not been covered thoroughly yet by the ex-SDQGLQJ¿HOGRIFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHVWXGLHV

\*LYHQWKDW VXFK D VFLHQWL¿FODFXQDLV GXHWRWKH above-mentioned lack of historical data, the present publication made use of a rediscovered set of visual primary sources (a plan, description, and 115 photographs of the Austro-Hungarian concession from *c*.1911) as a comparative backdrop and guide for my photographic survey in the spot in 2018 — some hundred years after the concession was handed over EDFN WR &KLQD :KDW ZDV PDSSHG RXW IRU WKH ¿UVW time on the basis of this visual evidence and comparison can be summarised as a mixture of conservation, restoration, reconstruction, and reinvention of Austria-Hungary's urban and architectural legacy.

Physical mementos span a wide range: from partly restored/enhanced original fabric and/or partially remodelled in-style additions *à l'Autrichienne* (the 'Austrian Bridge' and the former consulate building) to mock-up façades with old-style commemorative JDUQLVK D UHFHQW ÀDW UHSOLFD RI D ZKROH 3URWHVWDQW church from Salzburg, Austria next to a new memorial to the glorious 1948 Communist Liberation). This small 'original ensemble' is today accompanied by a scenario involving a newly reinvented 'Austrian Style 5LYHUIURQW¶ZKLFKLVIUDPHGE\ÀDWLQVW\OHVHULHVRI JLDQWEDQNDQGR൶FHEXLOGLQJV

As a focus point in this stage set of urban renaissance, the ambivalent person of the military governor and transient emperor Yuan Shikai is currently being reinvented as a cultural broker. This is happening not only in a 'historical' sense, whereby he is portrayed as an 'inter-national' mediator between the Concession Powers and China, and a national reformer towards future development and modernisation. His enduring presence on-site seems to require some 'physical' proof as well: the so-called Yuan Shikai Residence (most probably built several years *after* his death in 1916) has been staged in the style of a house museum next to other 'prominent' neighbours.

Further south, the photographic tour in 2018 culminated at the old trans-imperial contact zone between Austria-Hungary and Italy. This spot has been FRPPRGL¿HGWKURXJKUHFHQW&KLQHVHDJHQF\DQGIRU a primarily Chinese tourist industry into a global theme park of cultural heritage stereotypes imported from Florence and Vienna. In a transcultural sense, *Habsburgs going global* has come full circle in the name of the Austro-Hungarian concession: from an ambivalent *history caught between national disinterest and local failure* between 1902 and 1917 to an ambivalent *heritage of close-to-fake* one hundred years later.

## **Appendix**

**Photographic Album "Austro-Hungarian Concession, Tientsin" (***c.***1911), with original typescript description in German and translated in English**

### **Erklärung und Beschreibung der einzelnen Aufnahmen** *Explanation and description of the individual photographs*

#### **I. Quaistraße nördlich der Drehbrücke (Bilder 1–12 inkl.)**  *Quay Street to the north of the swing bridge (Illustrations 1–12)*

Wenn wir von der Hauptstraße der Niederlassung kommend links auf die Quaistraße abbiegen, so erblicken wir zuerst die Quaistraße entlang schauend, auf

*Coming from the main street of the concession and turning left onto Quay Street, we can see, looking down Quay Street,*

**Bild 1** die Straßenfront der Quai-VWUDHPLWGHQ+lXVHUQGHU)LUPD\* Taussig und der belgischen Tramwaygesellschaft im Hintergrunde rechts; auf

*Illustration 1 the frontage of Quay Street, with the buildings of the G. Taussig Company and the Belgian Tramway Company in the background to the right,*

**Bild 2** GDV.RQVXODWVQHEHQJHElXGH und das Haus der Firma G. Taussig.

*Illustration 2 the Consulate annexe building and the G. Taussig Company building.*

**Bild 3 & 4** das .RQVXODWVJHElXGH

*Illustrations 3 & 4 the Consulate building* 

**Bild 5** das Konsulatsneben-JHElXGH

*Illustration 5 the Consulate annexe building*

**Bild 6** das Haus der Firma G. Taussig

*Illustration 6 the G. Taussig Company building*

**Bild 7** links dasselbe, rechts das Administra-WLRQVJHElXGHGHU Tramwaygesellschaft

*Illustration 7 to the left side, the same as before; to the right side, the Tramway Compa-Q\¶VR৽FHEXLOGLQJ*

**Bild 8** gleichfalls das letztere

*Illustration 8 likewise, the latter* Appendix: Photographic Album "Austro-Hungarian Concession, Tientsin" 193

**Bild 9** Eingang zum \*UXQGVWFNGHU%DX¿UPD Johann Brunner

*Illustration 9 the entrance to the property of the Johann Brunner Construction Company*

Die folgenden 3 Bilder zeigen die Quaistraße südlich der Drehbrücke von dem gegenüber liegenden chinesischen Ufer aus aufgenommen und zwar zeigt

*The following three illustrations show Quay Street to the south of the swing bridge, photographed from the Chinese riverbank opposite, and depict*

**Bild 10** die beiden Kon-VXODWVJHElXGHXQGGDV Haus der Firma Taussig;

*Illustration 10 both Consulate buildings and the Taussig Company building;* **Bild 11** in der Reihenfolge gegen rechts zu: das Konsulatsneben-JHElXGHGDV+DXV der Firma Taussig und das Adminis-WUDWLRQVJHElXGH der Tramwaygesellschaft;

#### *Illustration*

*11 from left to right in the following order: the Consulate annexe building, the Taussig Company building and the Tramway Compa-Q\¶VR৽FHEXLOGing;*

**Bild 12** schließlich wieder das Haus Taussig und das der Tramwaygesellschaft.

#### *Illustration*

*12 DQG¿QDOO\ once again, the Taussig and Tramway Company buildings.*

#### **II. Hauptstraße der Niederlassung und sonstige Häuser der Hotungbaugesellschaft (Bild 13–42 inkl.)**

#### **Main street of the concession and other houses of the Hotung Construction Company [***Hotung Baugesellschaft***, or H.B.G.] (Illustrations 13–42)**

%LOG±LQNO]HLJHQGLH+lXVHUGHU+DXSWVWUDHXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJZHQQPDQDXVGHU&KLQHVHQVWDGW über die Drehbrücke kommend durch die Hauptstraße unserer Niederlassung gegen die italienische Konzession zu fortschreitet.

Illustrations 13 to 36 show the houses along the main street of our concession, if we walk from the Chinese City over the swing bridge and down the main street of our concession towards the Italian concession.

**Bild 13** zeigt die Hauptstraße von der Mitte der Drehbrücke aus gesehen; rechts oben in der Ecke des Bildes erblickt man GDV7UPFKHQGHV.RQVXODWVJHElXGHV

*Illustration 13 shows the main street viewed from the middle of the swing bridge; in the top right corner, we can see the turret of the Consulate building.*

**Bild 14** zeigt die Hauptstraße nach Überschreiten der Drehbrücke; links ist die Markthalle der Hotungbaugesellschaft, rechts die Mauer des Konsulargartens ersichtlich.

*Illustration 14 shows the main street after crossing the swing bridge; to the left is the Market Hall of the Hotung Construction Company, to the right we can see the wall of the Consulate's garden.*

**Bild 15** zeigt die entgegengesetzte Seite aus gleicher Position mit Ausblick gegen die Drehbrücke und dem chinesischen Poli- ]HLWDRWDL<DPHQLP+LQWHUJUXQGH

*Illustration 15 shows the opposite side from the same location, facing the swing bridge and looking out to the Chinese Police Taotai Yamen in the background.*

**Bild 16** ]HLJWGDVHUVWHGHU+RWXQJEDXJHVHOOVFKDIWVKlXVHULQGHU+DXSWVWUDH]XU5HFKWHQQDFK3DVVLHUHQGHV.RQVXODUJDU-WHQV]XUHEHQHU(UGHEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQFKLQHVLVFKHU8KUODGHQLPHUVWHQ6WRFNGDV'LUHNWLRQVEURGHU+RWXQJEDXJHVHOO-VFKDIW\$QHEHQJHQDQQWHV+DXVUHFKWVDQVFKOLHHQGEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQFKLQHVLVFKHV+RWHOHUVWHU.ODVVHHEHQIDOOVGHU+%\* gehörig.

*Illustration 16 GHSLFWVWKH¿UVWRIWKHKRXVHVRIWKH+RWXQJ&RQVWUXFWLRQ&RPSDQ\WRWKHULJKWKDQGVLGHZKHQSDVVLQJWKH &RQVXODWH\*DUGHQRQWKHJURXQGÀRRUWKHUHLVD&KLQHVHZDWFKPDNHURQWKH¿UVWÀRRUWKHUHLVWKHH[HFXWLYHR৽FHRIWKH +RWXQJ&RQVWUXFWLRQ&RPSDQ\7KHDGMDFHQWKRXVHWRWKHULJKWWKHUHLVD¿UVWFODVV&KLQHVHKRWHODOVREHORQJLQJWRWKH Hotung Construction Company.*

**Bild 17 & 18** ]HLJHQGDVHUVWH\*HElXGH]XU/LQNHQLQGHU+DXSWVWUDHQDFK3DVVLHUHQGHVGHU1LHGHUODVVXQJJHK|ULJHQ sogen. Marinegrundstückes, dem Haupteingange zur chinesischen Markthalle, welche auf Bild 108 vom gegenüberliegen-GHQFKLQHVLVFKHQ8IHULQ7RWDODQVLFKW]XHUEOLFNHQLVW\$QGLH0DUNWKDOOHDQVFKOLHHQGEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQHJURHFKLQHVLsche Apotheke – I Shan Tang – , welche auf Bild 19 ersichtlich ist.

*Illustrations 17 & 18 VKRZWKH¿UVWEXLOGLQJWRWKHOHIWDORQJWKHPDLQVWUHHWZKHQSDVVLQJWKHVRFDOOHG0DULQH3URS-HUW\ZKLFKDOVREHORQJVWRWKHFRQFHVVLRQDQGWKHPDLQHQWU\WRWKH&KLQHVH0DUNHW+DOOZKLFKLQ,OOXVWUDWLRQLV YLHZHGLQLWVHQWLUHW\IURPWKH&KLQHVHULYHUEDQNRSSRVLWH1H[WWRWKH0DUNHW+DOOZH¿QGDODUJH&KLQHVHSKDUPDF\, Shan Tang, depicted on the following photograph.*

**Bild 19** ,PHUVWHQ6WRFNGHVVHOEHQ+DXVHVGHU\$SRWKHNHEH¿QGHQVLFKGLH/DJHUUlXPHHLQHVFKLQHVLVFKHQ Pfandhauses.

*Illustration 19 2QWKH¿UVWÀRRURIWKHEXLOGLQJKRXVLQJWKH&KLQHVHSKDUPDF\WKHUHDUHVWRUDJHIDFLOLWLHV of a Chinese pawnshop.* 

**Bild 20** Weiter fortschreitend gelangen wir mit zu der bereits auf Bild 14 ersichtlichen Biegung des Hauptstraße. *Illustration 20 &RQWLQXLQJRXUZDONZHUHDFKWKHEHQGLQWKHPDLQVWUHHWDOUHDG\YLVLEOHLQ,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 21** +LHUHUEOLFNHQGDVOLQNH(FNKDXVGHU]XU/LQNHQGHU+DXSWVWUDHHLQPQGHQGHQ<DPHQVWUDHLQGHPEHWUH൵HQGHQ +DXVHLVWLPHUVWHQ6WRFNZHUNHLQNOHLQHV7HHKDXV]XHEHQHU(UGHHLQ:DVVHUYHUNlXIHUODGHQXQWHUJHEUDFKW

*Illustration 21 Here we see the left-hand corner building of Yamen Street, which joins the main street on its left side; in this EXLOGLQJWKHUHLVDVPDOOWHDKRXVHRQWKH¿UVWÀRRUDQGDZDWHUVHOOHUVKRSRQWKHJURXQGÀRRU*

**Bild 22** ]HLJWGLH7RWDODQVLFKWGHU<DPHQVWUDHYRQGHU+DXSWVWUDHDXVJHVHKHQ=XU5HFKWHQGHU6WUDHVLQGGUHLHEHQ-HUGLJH+lXVHUHUVLFKWOLFKGLH7\SHQZHOFKHIDVWDOOHQLFKWDQGHU+DXSWVWUDHJHOHJHQHQ+lXVHUGHU+%\*EHVLW]HQ,Q GHU0LWWHGHV+LQWHUJUXQGHVHUEOLFNWPDQGDV0XQL]LSDOLWlWVJHElXGHGHU1LHGHUODVVXQJZHOFKHVDXVHLQHPHKHPDOLJHQ FKLQHVLVFKHQ7HPSHOIU0XQL]LSDOLWlWV]ZHFNHDGRSWLHUWZXUGH

*Illustration 22 shows a complete view of Yamen Street from the vantage point of the main street. To the right of the street we can see three one-storey houses, whose building types are almost always those of structures not on the main street owned by the Hotung Construction Company. In the middle of the background one can see the concession's Municipal Building, formerly a Chinese temple, which was adopted for this purpose.*

**Bild 23** zeigt uns die Hauptstraße nach Passieren der auf Bild 20 ersichtlichen Biegung. Am rechten Rande des Bildes ist ein im Sommer dieses Jahres erbautes chinesisches Wohnhaus der H.B.G. ersichtlich, ein schmuckloser nüchterner Bau bloß im ersten Stockwerk mit Fenstern versehen. Im Hintergrunde des Bildes sind in größerer Entfernung die schwachen Konturen eines auf dem Gebiet der italienischen Niederlassung nicht weit der italienischen Hauptstraße und im gleichen Niveau mit derselben vor kurzem erbauten Wohnhauses ersichtlich. Hieraus kann der bedeutende Niveauunterschied zwischen einem großen Teil unserer Hauptstraße und der Via Vittorio Emanuele der italienischen Niederlassung ziemlich genau ersehen werden. Die zweimalige Unterbrechung der +lXVHUIURQW]XU5HFKWHQPDUNLHUWGLH3RVLWLRQGHV6LQJVRQJWKHDWHUVXQGGHVJURHQFKLQHVLVFKHQ7KHDWHUVGHU+%\*YLGH%LOG & 29).

*Illustration 23 GHSLFWVWKHPDLQVWUHHWDIWHUSDVVLQJWKHEHQGVKRZQLQ,OOXVWUDWLRQ2QWKHULJKWHGJHRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKZHFDQ see a Chinese residential property that was built by the Hotung Construction Company only last summer; as an unornamented, sober VWUXFWXUHLWRQO\KDVZLQGRZVRQWKH¿UVWÀRRU,QWKHEDFNJURXQGRIWKHSKRWRJUDSKRQHFDQVHHWKHIDLQWRXWOLQHVRIDQKDELWDWLRQ It was built recently on the territory of the Italian concession, not far from its main street and at the same level. Here we can notice TXLWHFOHDUO\WKHFRQVLGHUDEOHGLৼHUHQFHLQHOHYDWLRQEHWZHHQDORQJVHFWLRQRIRXUPDLQVWUHHWDQGWKH9LD9LWWRULR(PDQXHOHLQWKH Italian concession. The two interruptions in the alignment of houses to the right mark the positions of the Singsong Theatre and the ODUJH&KLQHVH7KHDWUHRIWKH+%\*VHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQV*

**Bild 24** (KHZLUGDV6LQJVRQJWKHDWHU]XU5HFKWHQSDVVLHUHQHUEOLFNHQZLU]XU/LQNHQHLQJU|HUHVFKLQHVLVFKHV.XFKHQJHVFKlIW *Illustartion 24 Before we pass the Singsong Theatre on the right, we will see a rather large Chinese cake shop to the left.*

**Bild 25** Ein wenig weiter auf ebenfalls zur Linken ein kleines Restaurant. Mit diesem Teile der Hauptstraße beginnt sich der EDXOLFKH=XVWDQGGHU+lXVHUDOOPlKOLFK]XYHUVFKOHFKWHUQ

*Illustration 25 A little bit further up, also to the left, we can see a small restaurant. On these sections of the main street the building condition of houses starts to deteriorate.*

**Bild 26** Dem eben er-ZlKQWHQ5HVWDXUDQWJHJHQüber liegt auf der rechten Straßenseite das chinesische Singsongtheater der H.B.G.

*Illustration 26 On the opposite side of the aforementioned restaurant, thus on the right-hand side, is the H.B.G's. Chinese Singsong Theatre.*

**Bild 27** Weiter fortschreitend erblicken wir OLQNVHLQ\*HElXGHPLW Billardzimmern und Kegelbahn zu ebener Erde, welches nach mehrmonatigem Stillstand vor kurzem ZLHGHUHU|൵QHWZXUGH'HU Besuch ist ein schwacher.

*Illustration 27 Walking further down, on the lefthand side we catch sight of a building with billiard rooms and a bowling alley DWJURXQGÀRRUOHYHO\$IWHU being shut for several months, it reopened recently. The number of visitors is low.*

**Bild 28** Weiters anschließend daran ein großes chinesisches Restaurant, das in voller Front ersichtlich ist. Das letztgenannte Restaurant ist bereits seit mehr als einem Jahre geschlossen; es dürfte nur schwer zu vermieten sein.

*Illustration 28 Adjacent to this building is a large Chinese restaurant, seen here in full frontal view. It has been closed for more than a year and seems GL৽FXOWWROHDVH*

**Bild 29** Dem HEHQHUZlKQWHQ Restaurant gegenüber liegt das große chinesische Theater der +%\*GDVZlKrend eines großen Teiles der letztendieser-Saison [sic] geschlossen war.

*Illustration 29 Opposite this restaurant is the large Chinese theatre of the H.B.G., which was closed for a major part of the last*  [and] *this season.*

**Bild 30** ]HLJWXQVHLQHQ\$XVEOLFNJHJHQGLHLWDOLHQLVFKH1LHGHUODVVXQJlKQOLFKZLH%LOGQDFK3DVVLHUHQGHVJURHQ7KHDWHUV 'DVQHXHUEDXWH+DXVDQGHULWDOLHQLVFKHQ+DXSWVWUDHLQGHU0LWWHGHV+LQWHUJUXQGHVLVWZHVHQWOLFKQlKHUJHUFNW.QDSSDPOLQNHQ 5DQGGHVHEHQJHQDQQWHQ%LOGHVEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQH±DXI%LOGLQGHU9RUGHUIURQW±HUVLFKWOLFKH+DXVW\SHZHOFKHLQGHPOHW]WHQ 7HLOGHU+DXSWVWUDHYRUKHUUVFKW'LH+lXVHUGLHVHU7\SHYHUIJHQDOOHQXUEHUHLQHQJDQ]VFKPDOHQ)XVWHLJVLQGXQUDWLRQHOOJHbaut und zum großen Teil in stark schadhaftem Zustand.

*Illustration 30 GHSLFWVDYLHZWRZDUGVWKH,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQVLPLODUWR,OOXVWUDWLRQDIWHUZDONLQJSDVWWKHODUJHWKHDWUH7KH newly built house on the Italian main street in the centre of the background seems to be much closer now. On the left edge of the DIRUHPHQWLRQHGSKRWRJUDSKWKHUHLVDW\SHRIKRXVLQJWKDWGRPLQDWHVWKLVODVWVHFWLRQRIWKHPDLQVWUHHW²LQ,OOXVWUDWLRQWKLVLVLQ the foreground. All houses of this type only possess a narrow walkway, have been built in an irrational manner and, to a large extent, are in a severely damaged condition.* 

**Bild 31** Auf dieser Abbildung ist dieser Zustand sogar auf der photographischen Reproduktion deutlich zu ersehen. Das auf Bild 31 ersichtliche Haus besitzt zu ebener Erde einen Barbierladen, im ersten Stockwerk ein kleines Restaurant dritter Güte.

*Illustration 31 On this SLFWXUHWKLVVWDWHRIDৼDLUV is even clearly visible on the photographic reproduction. The house on Illustra-WLRQFRQWDLQVDEDUEHU-VKRSRQWKHJURXQGÀRRU and a small third-class UHVWDXUDQWRQWKH¿UVWÀRRU*

**Bild 32** zeigt die Hauptstraße der Niederlassung im Rückblick von einem nicht weit der italienischen Grenze liegenden Punkte aus DXIJHQRPPHQ'LHLP9RUVWHKHQHUZlKQWH+DXVW\SHZHLWYRUJHUFNWH)URQWEHLVFKPDOHQ\*HKVWHLJLVWDXIGLHVHP%LOGHGHXWOLFK HUVLFKWOLFK'LH\*HVFKlIWVORNDOLWlWHQLP3DUWHUUHGLHVHU+lXVHUW\SHQVLQGQXUVFKZHU]XYHUPLHWHQXQGVWHKHQVHLW-DKUXQG7DJOHHU

*Illustration 32 shows the main street of the concession looking back from a point not far from the Italian border. On this photograph, the aforesaid type of housing, with its strongly projecting front section and narrow walkway, is clearly visible. Business prem-LVHVRQWKHJURXQGÀRRUVRIWKHVHW\SHVRIKRXVLQJDUHYHU\GL৽FXOWWROHDVHDQGKDYHVWRRGHPSW\IRUDORQJWLPH*

**Bild 33** zeigt einen Ausblick vom Ende unserer Hauptstraße gegen die Via Vittorio Emanuele zu; zur Linken ist das neue italienische Konsu-ODWVJHElXGH]XU Rechten ein vor kurzem errichtetes Privathaus ersichtlich; der übrige Teil der italienischen Hauptstraße ist zum großen Teil noch unbebaut; die angrenzenden Terrains sind durchwegs bedeutend tiefer gelegen und müssen EHL\$X൵KUXQJHQ von Neubauten angeschüttet werden.

*Illustration 33 depicts a panorama from the end of our main street towards the Via Vittorio Emanuele; to the left we can see the new Italian Consulate building, and to the right a recently built private property; to a large extent, the remaining section of the Italian main street is still undeveloped. The adjacent plots of land are altogether on considerably lower ground and need to be raised before new construction.*

**Bild 34** das linke Eckhaus der Haupttrasse an der italienischen Grenze derzeit von Herrn Accurti bewohnt.

#### *Illustration 34*

*The left-hand corner building on the main street at the Italian border is currently occupied by Mr Accurti.*

**Bild 35** ]HLJWGDVHXURSlLVFKH:RKQKDXVDXIGHUHQWJHJHQJHVHW]WHQ6WUDHQVHLWH'DVDXIGLHVHP%LOGH]XU/LQNHQHUVLFKWOLFKH Terrain, welches tief gelegen ist, ist bereits italienisches Gebiet. An dieser Stelle geht ein Wasserdurchlass unter der Hauptstraße nach der gegenüberliegenden nördlichen Seite zum strittigen Terrain unserer Niederlassung, welcher einen großen Teil der Niederschlags-ZlVVHUGHUWLHIJHOHJHQHQ7HLOHGHULWDOLHQLVFKHQ1LHGHUODVVXQJQDFKGHPVWULWWLJHQ7HUUDLQXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJ]XHQWZlVVHUWYLGH auch Bild 36).

*Illustration 35 depicts a European residential property on the opposite side of the street. The land on the left side of the photograph, which lies at a lower level, is already part of the Italian possession. At this point, a culvert runs northwards under the main street towards the opposite side and the disputed land in our concession. This culvert drains much of the rainwater away from the ORZHUVHFWLRQVRIWKH,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQWRZDUGVWKHGLVSXWHGODQGLQRXUFRQFHVVLRQVHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 36** ]HLJWGLH5FNVHLWHGHVDXI%LOGHUVLFKWOLFKHQ:RKQKDXVHV]XU5HFKWHQGHV%LOGHVEH¿QGHWVLFKHLQEHGHXWHQGWLHIHU JHOHJHQHV.RKOHQJHVFKlIWXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJ'LHLWDOLHQLVFKH\*UHQ]HYHUOlXIWHWZDVOLQNVGHU0LWWHGLHVHV%LOGHV

*Illustration 36 VKRZVWKHUHDURIWKHUHVLGHQWLDOSURSHUW\SLFWXUHGLQ,OOXVWUDWLRQ2QWKHULJKWVLGHRIWKHSLFWXUHWKHUHLVDFRDO merchant at a considerably lower ground level in our concession. The Italian boundary runs somewhat to the left of the centre of this photograph.* 

**Bild 37** ]HLJWGLH+lXsertypen der in einer 1HEHQVWUDHEH¿QGOLFKHQ FKLQHVLVFKHQ:RKQKlXser der H.B.G.

*Illustration 37 shows the types of housing featured by H.B.G. Chinese residential properties along a secondary road.*

**Bild 38** ]HLJWGDV3DUDOOHOJlVVFKHQ]XU+DXSWVWUDHKLQWHUGHPJURHQFKLQHVLVFKHQ7KHDWHUGHU+%\* *Illustration 38 depicts a small alley running parallel to the main street behind the large Chinese theatre of the H.B.G.*

**Bild 39** eines der besser gebauten chinesischen Hotels der H.B.G.

*Illustration 39 shows one of the Chinese hotels built by the H.B.G. to a higher standard.*

**Bild 40** das dritte und letzte HXURSlLVFKJHEDXWH:RKQKDXV der H.B.G., welches derzeit von einem chinesischen Komprador einer größeren Tientsiner Firma bewohnt wird.

*Illustration 40 depicts the third (and last) European-built residential structure of the H.B.G. It is currently occupied by a Chinese comprador working for a rather large 7LHQWVLQ¿UP*

**Bild 41 & 42** zeigen schließlich zwei der chine-VLVFKHQ%RUGHOOKlXVHUGHU+%\*GLHEHWUH൵HQ-GHQ%RUGHOOHEH¿QGHQVLFKJU|WHQWHLOVLQPHKU RGHUPLQGHUYHUQDFKOlVVLJWHP=XVWDQGH

*Illustrations 41 & 42 show two of the H.B.G.'s Chinese brothels; to a large extent, they are in a more or less neglected state.*

### **III. Sonstige Niederlassung und Sammelbassin (Bilder 43–67)**  *Other parts of the concession and the reservoir (Illustrations 43–67)*

:LUELHJHQYRQGHU8IHUVWUDHNRPPHQGDQGHPQ|UGOLFKHQ(QGH]XQlFKVWLQGLH+VLQ/XQJ&KLHGLHFKLQHsische Transitlastenverkehrsstraße ein, welche parallel zur Hauptstraße laufend den größten Teil des Lasten-WUDQVLWYHUNHKUVXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJEHZlOWLJW

*&RPLQJGRZQWKHQRUWKHUQHQGRIWKH5LYHUVLGH5RDGZHWXUQ¿UVWLQWR+VLQ/XQJ&KLHWKH&KLQHVHURDG WKDWUXQQLQJSDUDOOHOWRWKHPDLQVWUHHWKDQGOHVPRVWRIWKHKHDY\JRRGVWKURXJKWUD৽F*

**Bild 43** zeigt den Eingang dieser Straße von der Uferstraße aus gesehen, zur Rechten und zur Linken Bam-EXVZDUHQJHVFKlIWH welche zum großen Teil landwirtschaftliche \*HUlWHYHUNDXIHQ

*Illustration 43 shows the entrance to this road, seen from the Riverside Road, with bamboo products stores to the left and right that mostly sell agricultural equipment.*

**Bild 44** ]HLJWGLHVHOEH6WUDHLP5FNEOLFNJHJHQGLH8IHUVWUDHLQGHU+|KHGHU.UHX]XQJGHU+VLQ/LQJ&KLHPLWGHU<DPHQ-VWUDHDXIGHUUHFKWHQ6WUDHQVHLWHHUEOLFNWPDQGDV\*HVFKlIWVDE]HLFKHQGHV]ZHLWJU|WHQ3IDQGJHVFKlIWHVXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJ

*Illustration 44 depicts the same street looking back towards Riverside Road at the level of the junction between Hsin Ling Chie and Yamen Road; on the right-hand side one can see the business sign of the second-largest pawnshop in our concession.*

**Bild 45** ]HLJWJOHLFKIDOOVGLH+VLQ/XQJ&KLHQDFK.UHX]XQJGHU<DPHQ6WUDHGLH8QWHUEUHFKXQJ]XU5HFKWHQGHU+lXVHUfront bezeichnet einen Herrn Emil S. Fischer gehörigen Bauplatz, welcher von dem Genannten nach dem Brande angekauft ZXUGHXQGVHLWQDKH]XGUHL-DKUHQEUDFKOLHJWRKQHGDVJHULQJVWH6WHXHUHUWUlJQLVDE]XZHUIHQ

*Illustration 45 also shows Hsin Lung Chie after the Yamen Street junction; the interruption to the right of the row of houses KDVWRGRZLWKDSORWERXJKWE\0U(PLO6)LVFKHUDIWHUD¿UHWKDWKDVEHHQO\LQJLGOHIRUDOPRVWWKUHH\HDUVZLWKRXWUDLVLQJDQ\ tax revenue.*

**Bild 46** ]HLJWGLHYHUOlQJHUWH+VLQ/XQJ&KLHZHOFKHLPOHW]WHQ6HPHVWHU]ZHFNVP|JOLFKVWHU(QWODVWXQJGHU+DXSWVWUDHYRQ schwerem Fuhrwerksverkehr bis zur italienischen Grenze weiter ausgebaut wurde, so daß die Hauptstraße der Niederlassung QXQPHKULQLKUHUJDQ]HQ/lQJHYRQ/DVWHQYHUNHKUXQEHUKUWEOHLEHQNDQQ

*Illustration 46 shows the extended Hsin Lung Chie road, which was further developed last summer up to the Italian boundary in order to relieve the main street from heavy horse-drawn vehicles as much as possible, so that the concession's main street will EHXQGLVWXUEHGE\KHDY\JRRGVWUD৽FDORQJLWVHQWLUHOHQJWKDWODVW*

*Illustration 48 Here one can see the front yard and the intermediate structure of the Municipal Building in which the Chinese police FRQVWDEOHVDQGVHUJHDQWVKDYHWKHLUR৽FLDOORGJLQJVDVZHOODVWKHVKDUHGZDVKURRPVRIWKHSROLFHVTXDGV7KHUHDUEXLOGLQJZKLFK KDVDFRPSDUDEOHGLPHQVLRQDQGFRQWDLQVWKHSROLFHXQLIRUPVGHSRWDQGWKHVHUYDQWÀDWVLVRXWRIVLJKW*

**Bild 47** zeigt das 0XQL]LSDOLWlWVJH-ElXGHGHU1LHGHUODVsung mit einem Mattenverbau (vide auch Bild 22).

*Illustration 47 depicts the Municipal Building of the concession with a covering of mats (see also ,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 48** den Vorderhof und das Mit-WHOJHElXGHGHU0X-QL]LSDOLWlWLQ welchem sich die Dienstwohnungen des chinesischen Polizeiwachtmeisters und der Unter-R൶]LHUHEH¿QGHQ sowie die gemeinsa-PHQ:DVFKUlXPH der Polizeimannschaften. Das Hin-WHUJHElXGHZHOFKHV LQXQJHIlKUGHQ gleichen Dimensionen aufgeführt ist und in welchem sich GLH'HSRWUlXPOLFK-NHLWHQEH¿QGHQIU die Polizeiuniformen und Dienerwohnungen, ist nicht sichtbar.

**Bild 49** zeigt die Rückseite des Hauptge-ElXGHVYRQGHP7UHSpenansatz des Mittelge-ElXGHV%LOGDXV aufgenommen.

**Illustration 49** depicts the rear of the main building, photographed from the staircase of the intermediate building (see Ill. 48).

**Bild 50** zeigt die Mu-QL]LSDOLWlWVIHXHUVSULW]H Dieselbe, welche von der Firma Czermak (Teplitz), durch den Tientsiner Agenten Fischer & Co. zum Preise von \$ 3000 geliefert wurde, ist in diesem Semester auf einen vier-UlGHULJHQ:DJHQPRQtiert worden, um ihr die bisher mangelnde Standfestigkeit zu geben. Der YLHUUlGHULJH:DJHQ wurde in der Maschinen-ZHUNVWlWWHGHU7LHQWVLQHU Firma Bourgery & Co. zum Preise von 310 Tls. KHUJHVWHOOWGLH2൵HUWH der Firma Fischer & Co, ZHOFKHHLQHQYLHUUlGULgen Wagen zum Preise von 800 Tls. hatte liefern wollen, wurde verworfen.

*Illustration 50 VKRZVWKH¿UHKRVHRIWKH0XQLFLSDOLW\:LWKWKHKHOSRIWKH7LHQWVLQEDVHGDJHQW)LVFKHU &RLWZDVGHOLYHUHGE\ &]HUPDND¿UPIURP7HSOLW]*[Germany]*) and mounted on a four-wheeled waggon in order to provide the stability that was previously ODFNLQJ7KLVIRXUZKHHOHGZDJJRQZDVSURGXFHGLQWKHPDFKLQHVKRSRIWKH7LHQWVLQEDVHG¿UP%RXUJHU\ &RIRU7OVWKH SURSRVDOE\WKH¿UP)LVFKHU &RWRGHOLYHUVXFKDZDJJRQIRU7OVZDVWXUQHGGRZQ*

*Illustration 51 depicts one of the concession's largest dye works, based in Yamen Street. The plot concerned was used shortly after the Boxer Uprising for barracks to house marines of the k.u.k. detachment to Tientsin.*

**Bild 52** zeigt die Kanalstraße, eine südliche Parallelstraße zur Hauptstraße am Südende des ausgebauten Teiles der Uferstraße beginnend. Zur Linken des Bildes ist die Grenzmauer des der Firma Johann Brunner gehörigen Grundstückes ersichtlich. Im +LQWHUJUXQGHHUEOLFNHQZLULQGHU0LWWHGDV\*HElXGH der größten chinesischen Kaoliangspiritus Brennerei unserer Niederlassung.

*Illustration 52 shows Canal Street, a street that runs parallel to the south side of the main street and begins at the southern end of the developed section of the Riverside Road. On the left side of the photograph one can see the boundary wall of a plot belonging to the Johann Brunner Company. At the centre of the background, we can spot the building of the largest Chinese Kaoliang distillery in our concession.*

**Bild 53** zeigt die Kanalstraße vom anderen Ende aus gesehen; zur Rechten erblicken wir den eben genannte Kaoliangspiritus Brennerei, zur Linken einen Teil des Maschinenge-ElXGHVGHU3XPSVWDtion.

*Illustration 53 depicts Canal Street seen from the other end; to the right, we can make out the aforementioned Kaoliang distillery, and to the left a section of the pumping station's machinery building.*

**Bild 54** zeigt das im Süden der Hauptstraße gelegene Herrn Emil S. Fischer gehörige chinesische Theater, das dritte (!) große Theater der Niederlassung. Das \*HElXGHLVWVHKUSULPLtiv und wenig feuersicher gebaut, und EH¿QGHWVLFKDXHUGHP im reparaturbedürftigen Zustande.

*Illustration 54 shows the Chinese theatre of Mr Emil S. Fischer, situated to the south of the main street and the third (!) large theatre in the concession. The building is built in a very simple way and with very little atten-WLRQWR¿UHSURR¿QJ additionally it is in need of repair.*

**Bild 55** zeigt die der Niederlassung gehörige in der Ver-OlQJHUXQJGHU.DQDOVWUDHDP Sammelbassin gelegene Armenschule, welche derzeit durch einen Zubau im Norden entsprechend vergrößert wird; dieselbe ist seit Januar dieses Jahres der direkten Kontrolle der Niederlassungsverwaltung unterstellt worden. Die Schule wird nach Fertigstellung des Neubaus im Frühjahr 1912 200 Schüler in vier Klassen aufnehmen können. In einem UHJXOlUHQ\$EHQGNXUVHZLUG von Li, Dolmetscher dieses k.u.k. Konsulates, die deutsche Sprache gelehrt.

*Illustration 55 depicts the Charity School, which belongs to the concession and is situated at the reservoir on the extension to Canal Street. Currently, it is being enlarged* 

*by an annexe building on the north side; since this January, it has been placed under the direct control of the concession administra-WLRQ\$IWHULWVFRPSOHWLRQLQVSULQJWKHVFKRROZLOOEHDEOHWRWDNHXSSXSLOVLQIRXUFODVVHV7KH\*HUPDQODQJXDJHZLOOEH taught by Li, interpreter of the present k.u.k. Consulate, during regular evening courses.* 

**Diese und die nunmehr folgenden Bilder zeigen gleichzeitig das Sammelbassin unserer Niederlassung.** *The following photographs show the reservoir in our concession.*

**Bild 56** ]HLJWXQJHIlKUGLH gleiche Aufnahme, von der Sohle des Bassins bei mittlerem Wasserstrande aufgenommen.

*Illustration 56 shows approximately the same picture, this time taken from the bed of the reservoir at medium water level.*

**Bild 57–59** zeigen das Sammelbassin gegen Westen in der Richtung des Peiho bei mittlerem und ganz niedrigem Wasserstande aufgenommen. Das letzte Bild zeigt deutlich die in seiner zeitigen Berichte des Niederlassungsekretariats vom 6. Juli 1906 Zl. 27 ursprünglich angegebenen (rote Markierungslinie) und diejenigen Dimen-VLRQHQLQZHOFKHQGDV6DPPHOEDVVLQVSlWHU WDWVlFKOLFKDXVJHKREHQZXUGH

*Illustrations 57–59 show the reservoir facing west in the direction of the Peiho* [River]*, photographed with medium and very low water levels. The last photograph clearly indicates the dimensions of the reservoir — those originally indicated (with a red marking line) in the concession VHFUHWDULDW¶VUHSRUWRI-XO\OLQHDQG ZKDWZDVODWHUHৼHFWLYHO\H[FDYDWHG*

**Bild 60** zeigt eine von Bild 58 weiter nach links gelegene Partie des Sammelbassins.

*Illustration 60 shows a section of the reservoir that is situated further to the left in comparison to Illustra-WLRQ*

**Bild 61** eine Partie des Sammelbassins gegen Osten in der Richtung der italienischen Grenze; bei niedrigem Wasserstande aufgenommen.

*Illustration 61 shows a section of the reservoir facing east towards the Italian boundary, photographed at low water level.*

**Bild 62** XQJHIlKUGLHJOHLFKH Partie beim Hochwasserstande vom 30. August d.J. Der damalige Wasserstand auf Bild 57 & 58 sowie 59 ist durch eine gestrichelte Linie markiert. Hieraus ist deutlich zu ersehen, wie wenig die jetzige Anlage geeignet ist Überschwemmungen bei außerordentlich starken Regengüssen hintanzuhalten. Die Frage der 9HUEHVVHUXQJGLHVHU(QWZlVserungsanlage ist dem hieramtlichen der k.u.k. Gesandtschaft in Peking unter dem 9. Oktober 1911 ad Zl. 1937 unterbreiteten Berichte in ausführlicher Weise behandelt ZRUGHQ(UZlKQWVROOKLHUQXU ZHUGHQGDGLHhEHUÀXWXQJ des alten Friedhofes, haupt-VlFKOLFKZHJHQDEQRUPDOHU Wassereinbrüche von dem Grenzgebiet der italienischen

1LHGHUODVVXQJELQQHQZHQLJHU6WXQGHQHUIROJWHZlKUHQG]XP\$XVSXPSHQGLHVHU:DVVHUPDVVHQPLWGHUJHJHQZlUWLJHQ3XPSDQODJH zwei volle Tage erforderlich waren.

*Illustration 62 GHSLFWVDSSUR[LPDWHO\WKHVDPHVHFWLRQDWKLJKZDWHUOHYHORQ\$XJXVWRIWKLV\HDU7KHSDVWZDWHUOHYHOLQ,OOXV-WUDWLRQVWRLVLQGLFDWHGE\DGDVKHGOLQH&OHDUO\ZHFDQJDWKHUIURPWKLVKRZOLWWOHWKHSUHVHQWV\VWHPLVDEOHWRSUHYHQWÀRRGing triggered by extraordinary strong rainfall. The issue of the improvement of the present drainage system was discussed extensively LQRXUUHSRUWRI2FWREHUOLQHIRUWKHNXN/HJDWLRQLQ%HLMLQJ:HQHHGRQO\PHQWLRQKHUHWKDWWKHÀRRGLQJRIWKHROG cemetery happened in a matter of hours, owing to abnormal water ingress from the border area of the Italian concession, whereas the pumping out of these masses of water with the help of the actual pumping system necessitated two full days.*

**Bild 63** zeigt die gleiche Partei des Sammelbassins beim Hochwasserstand vom 30. August d.J. wie Bild 62 DXVQlFKVWHU1lKHDXIJHQRPmen.

*Illustration 63 shows the same section of the reservoir DWKLJKZDWHUOHYHORQ\$Xgust of this year, photographed at close range as in ,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 64 & 65** zeigt ebenfalls zu Vergleichszwecken eine Aufnahme des Sammelbassins gegen Süden bei normalem und beim Hochwasserstand vom 30. August 1911. Auf ersterem Bilde sind wieder deutlich die Markierungslinien des Sammelbassins in seinem XUVSUQJOLFKJHSODQWHQXQGVHLQHQVSlWHUWDWVlFKOLFKDXVJHKREHQHQ'LPHQVLRQHQHUVLFKWOLFK

*Illustrations 64 & 65 show again, for comparison purposes, the reservoir facing south, both with a normal water level and the high ZDWHUOHYHORI\$XJXVW,QWKH¿UVWSKRWRJUDSKWKHPDUNLQJOLQHVRIWKHUHVHUYRLUDVRULJLQDOO\SODQQHGDQGLWVDFWXDOGLPHQsions after excavation are visible.*

**Bild 66** zeigt eine Aufnahme des Sammelbassins in seiner ganzen Ausdehnung vom Scheitel des auf Bild 57–59 ersichtlichen mit einer gestrichelten Linie markierten Eingangsschleuse aus aufgenommen.

*Illustration 66 reproduces a photograph of the entire surface of the reservoir, taken from the top of the entrance lock, which was depicted in Illustrations ±ZLWKDGDVKHG line.*

**Bild 67** zeigt die unmittelbar an der italienischen Grenze gelegenen zweitgrößte chinesische Schule der Niederlassung (in chinesischer Verwaltung EH¿QGOLFKPLWGHPGDYRU EH¿QGOLFKHQ7XUQSODW] Die Schule war zur Zeit der Pestepidemie im Frühjahr dieses Jahres als Isolierhospital eingerichtet worden.

*Illustration 67 depicts the concession's second largest Chinese school (under Chinese administration), which is situated right next to the Italian boundary, together with its sport facilities. During the plague epidemic in the springtime of this year, the school was turned into an isolation hospital.*

**IV. Grenzgebiet zwischen der italienischen und unserer Niederlassung (Bilder 68–76 inkl.)**  *Border area between our concession and the Italian one (Illustrations 68–76)*

**Bild 68** ]HLJW GDV YRU GHU HEHQHUZlKQWHQ 6FKXOH OLHJHQGH \*UHQ]JHELHW %HUHLWV DXI GLHVHP %LOGH VLQG GLH XQPLWWHOEDU QDFK GHU Überschwemmung vom 30. August d.J. durchgeführten Erdanschüttungen im Grenzgebiet ersichtlich, durch welche ein Einbruch der Wassermassen vom italienischen Gebiet gegen das Sammelbassin der Niederlassung für künftighin vermieden werden wird.

*Illustration 68 VKRZVWKHERUGHUDUHDLQIURQWRIWKHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGVFKRRO2QHFDQDOUHDG\VHHRQWKLVSKRWRJUDSKWKHHDUWK¿OOV WKDWZHUHPDGHLQWKHERUGHUDUHDLPPHGLDWHO\DIWHUWKHÀRRGLQJVRI\$XJXVWRIWKLV\HDU7KHVHHPEDQNPHQWVVKRXOGSUHYHQWWKH future inrush of water masses from the Italian grounds against the reservoir in our concession.*

**Bild 69** zeigt an der italienischen Grenze in der Richtung gegen die Hauptstraße weiter fortschreitend einen anderen Teil des Grenzgebietes bei normalem und ...

*Illustration 69 shows another section of the border area, when progressing further from the Italian border towards the main street, with a normal water level…*

**Bild 70** ... beim Hochwasserstande vom 30. August 1911 zu einer Zeit, als das Wasser bereits zum Teil durch den Wasserdurchlass GHU9LD9LWWRULR(PDQXHOHYLGH%LOGJHJHQGDVVWULWWLJH7HUUDLQXQVHUHU1LHGHUODVVXQJ]XDEJHÀRVVHQZDU

*Illustration 70 «DQGWKHQZLWKWKHKLJKZDWHUOHYHORI\$XJXVWDWDPRPHQWLQWLPHZKHQVRPHRIWKHZDWHUZDVDOUHDG\ UXQQLQJRৼWKURXJKWKHFXOYHUWRI9LD9LWWRULR(PDQXHOHVHH,OOXVWUDWLRQWRZDUGVWKHGLVSXWHGODQGLQRXUFRQFHVVLRQ*

**Bild 71** zeigt eine der an der Grenze der italienischen Niederlassung führenden Parallelstraßen zur Hauptstraße, durch welche sich das Hochwasser am 30. August d.J. einen Weg gegen das Sammelbassin zu bahnte; dieselbe mündet bei dem auf Bild 70 am linken Rande ersichtlichen chinesischen Wohnhaus an die italienische Grenze.

*Illustration 71 shows one of the streets running parallel to the main street in the area bordering the Italian concession, through ZKLFKÀRRGZDWHUPDGHLWVZD\DJDLQVWWKHUHVHUYRLURQ\$XJXVWRIWKLV\HDUWKLVVWUHHWOHDGVWRD&KLQHVHUHVLGHQWLDOSURSHUW\DW WKH,WDOLDQERUGHUZKLFKFDQEHVHHQRQWKHOHIWHGJHRI,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 72 & 73** zeigen dieselbe Straße in normalem Zustande resp. zu Zeiten des Hochwasserstandes vom 30. August d.J.

*Illustrations 72 & 73 VKRZWKHVDPHVWUHHW¿UVWXQGHUQRUPDOFLUFXPVWDQFHVDQGWKHQDWWKHWLPHRIÀRRGLQJRQ\$XJXVWRIWKLV year.*

**Bild 74 & 75** zeigen das Grenzgebiet unserer 1LHGHUODVVXQJLQJU|WHU1lKHGHU+DXSWVWUDH Die kürzlich durchgeführten Erdanschüttungen im Grenzgebiet sind deutlich zu sehen. Im Hintergrunde links (x) erblicken wir das Wohnhaus Herrn Accurtis. Das auf Bild 75 in der Mitte HUVLFKWOLFKHFKLQHVLVFKH+lXVFKHQDXILWDOLHQLschen Gebiet stand zu Zeiten des Hochwassers YRP\$XJXVWG-]XU+lOIWHXQWHU:DVVHU

*Illustrations 74 & 75 show the border area of our concession close by the main street. The HDUWK¿OOVUHFHQWO\PDGHLQWKLVERUGHUDUHDDUH clearly visible. In the background, to the left (indicated as x) we can see the residential property of Mr Accurti. The small Chinese house on ,WDOLDQWHUULWRU\DWWKHFHQWUHRI,OOXVWUDWLRQ ZDVKDOIVXEPHUJHGGXULQJWKHÀRRGRQ\$Xgust this year.*

**Bild 76** zeigt dasselbe chinesische Wohnhaus von der entgegengesetzten Seite aus aufgenommen.

*Illustration 76 shows the same Chinese house, photographed from the opposite side.*

**V. Strittiges Terrain (Bilder 77–85 inkl.)**  *Disputed Land (Illustrations 77–85)*

**Bild 77** Wir überschreiten nunmehr die Hauptstraße an der italienischen Grenze und haben auf einen Ausblick auf das im Herbst GLHVHV-DKUHVLQIROJHGHUJURHQ5HJHQIlOOHY|OOLJXQWHU:DVVHUJHVHW]WHÄVWULWWLJH7HUUDLQ³YRUXQV,P+LQWHUJUXQGHLVWGHU'DPP der nordchinesischen Eisenbahn sichtbar.

*Illustration 77 Now we cross the main street at the Italian border and see, in front of us, the 'disputed land' that was entirely ÀRRGHGIROORZLQJWRUUHQWLDOUDLQIDOOODVWDXWXPQ,QWKHEDFNJURXQGZHFDQVHHWKHUDLOZD\HPEDQNPHQWRIWKH*[Imperial] *Chinese Northern Railways.*

**Bild 78 & 79** zeigt eine Aufnahme in gleicher Richtung von dem auf Bild 77 mit (x) bezeichneten Stege aus.

*Illustrations 78 & 79 show a photograph of the bridge, indicated by (x) in ,OOXVWUDWLRQWDNHQIURPWKHVDPH vantage point.*

**Bild 80** zeigt eine Aufnahme von dem oben bezeichneten Punkte gegen die Hauptstraße ]XPLWGHQEHLGHQ(FNKlXVHUQ unserer Hauptstraße gegen die italienische Grenze zu.

*Illustration 80 shows a photograph, taken from the aforementioned vantage point facing the main street, with both corner buildings in our concession right against the Italian border.*

**Bild 81** An der Grenze des strittigen Terrains gegen die italienische Niederlassung zu entlang in der Richtung des Eisenbahndammes fortschrei-

WHQGKDEHQZLU]XQlFKVWHLQHQ5FNEOLFNJHJHQGLH1LHGHUODVVXQJPLWGHP|VWOLFKHQ7HLOGHVGHU]HLWYROONRPPHQEHUÀXWHWHQVWULWWLgen Terrains. Der Pfeil im Bilde bezeichnet die Lage der auf Bild 15 ersichtlichen Drehbrücke am westlichen Ende unserer Niederlassung.

*Illustration 81 At the boundary with the disputed land, facing the Italian concession and continuing in the direction of the railway HPEDQNPHQWZHFDQ¿UVWORRNEDFNDWWKHFRQFHVVLRQ¶VHDVWHUQVHFWLRQ²WKHHQWLUHO\ÀRRGHGGLVSXWHGODQG7KHDUURZLQWKHSLFWXUH indicates the location of the swing bridge, which can be seen on Illustration 15, on the western edge of our concession.*

**Bild 82** ]HLJWXQJHIlKUGLH gleiche Partie jedoch von der Höhe des Eisenbahndammes aus aufgenommen. Die beiden Pfeile bei a) und b) zeigen die Breitenerstreckung unserer Niederlassung vom Peiho gegen die italienische Niederlassung zu und gleichzeitig die /lQJHQDXVGHKQXQJXQVHUHU Hauptstraße.

*Illustration 82 shows approximately the same section; it is, however, taken from the top of the railway embankment. The two arrows a) and b) indicate the full expanse of our concession, from the Peiho* [River] *to the Italian concession and, at the same time, the length of our main street.*

**Bild 83** Den Eisenbahndamm gegen Westen zu fortschreitend erblicken wir auf das strittige Terrain und im Vordergrunde den Privatfriedhof der Familie Chu, am rechten Rande des Bildes ganz im Hintergrunde die Konturen der an der Biegung des Peiho und der (LQPQGXQJVVWHOOHGHV.DLVHUNDQDOVJHOHJHQH.DWKHGUDOHĮYLGH%LOG

*Illustration 83 Walking westwards towards the railway embankment, we catch sight of the disputed land and, in the foreground, of the private cemetery of the Chu Family; on the right edge of the photograph, far in the background is the outline of the cathedral LQGLFDWHGE\ĮORFDWHGLQWKHEHQGLQWKH3HLKR*[River]*DWWKHFRQÀXHQFHZLWKWKH,PSHULDO&DQDOVHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 84** eine weitere Aufnahme des strittigen Terrains QRFKPHKUZHVWZlUWV]XU Linken ein Teil des Privatfriedhofes der Familie Chu, unter (x) die Konturen der Kathedrale. Das große Ge-ElXGHLP+LQWHUJUXQGHLQGHU Mitte des Bildes ist das neue große erstklassige chinesische Pfandhaus der Niederlassung. Der Schornstein zur Rechten desselben im Hintergrunde gehört zu der bereits auf chinesischem Gebiet gelegenen (OHNWUL]LWlWVDQODJHGHU7LHQWsiner Tramway und Elektrizi-WlWVJHVHOOVFKDIW

*Illustration 84 shows an additional photograph of the disputed land even more westwards; to the left lies part of the Chu family's private cemetery while the contours of the cathedral are indicated by (x). The large building in the back-*

*JURXQGDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKHSLFWXUHLVWKHQHZODUJH¿UVWFODVV&KLQHVHSDZQVKRSLQWKHFRQFHVVLRQ7KHFKLPQH\WRLWVULJKWLQWKH background already belongs to the power station of the Tientsin Tramways and Electricity Company, situated on Chinese territory.*

**Bild 85** ]HLJWVFKOLHOLFKGDVJURH3IDQGKDXVGHU1LHGHUODVVXQJDXVJU|WHU1lKHDXIJHQRPPHQ]XU5HFKWHQXQWHUȕGLHHEHQ-JHQDQQWHDXIFKLQHVLVFKHP\*HELHWQHEHQGHUNDWKROLVFKHQ.DWKHGUDOHJHOHJHQH(OHNWUL]LWlWVDQODJH

*Illustration 85 ¿QDOO\VKRZVWKHFRQFHVVLRQ¶VODUJHSDZQVKRSSKRWRJUDSKHGYHU\FORVH7RWKHULJKWȕZHFDQVHHWKHDIRUHPHQtioned power plant, next to the Catholic cathedral, on Chinese territory.*

### **VI. Quaibauten (Bilder 86–93 inkl.)**  *Quay constructions (Illustrations 86–93)*

**Bild 86** zeigt die regulierte südlich der Drehbrücke gelegene Uferfront, vom südlichen Ende des ausgebauten Teiles der Uferstraße aus gesehen. 'LHURWH/LQLHPDUNLHUWGHQXQJHIlKren Verlauf des Schwemmlandes, welches im Frühjahr 1912 ausgebag-JHUWZHUGHQVROO,QGHU9HUOlQJHUXQJ der Betonabdeckung ist im Hintergrunde Mitte rechts das Holzgerüst des bei den Quaiarbeiten nördlich der Drehbrücke in Verwendung stehenden Rammbockes sichtbar.

*Illustration 86 shows the managed riverbank to the south of the swing bridge, photographed from the southern end of the developed section of the Riverside Road. (The red line indicates the approximate course of the alluvial land, which is scheduled to be GUHGJHGLQ6SULQJ,QWKHEDFNground, to the right of the centre in the prolongation of the concrete cov ering, ZHFDQVHHWKHZRRGHQVFDৼROGLQJIRUWKHUDPWKDWLVEHLQJXVHGIRUTXD\VLGHFRQVWUXFWLRQZRUNWRWKHQRUWKRIWKHVZLQJEULGJH*

**Bild 87** ]HLJWGLHJOHLFKH)URQWLQQlFKVWHU(QWIHUQXQJYRQGHU'UHKEUFNHXQPLWWHOEDUQDFK6FKOLHHQGHUVHOEHQHLQGLFKWHU0HQschenstrom bewegt sich auf dem Gehsteig der Brücke zur Linken gegen das chinesische Ufer zu. Das Schwemmland tritt deutlich hervor.

*Illustration 87 shows the same waterfront, photographed at closer range from the swing bridge, immediately after its closing. A dense stream of people is moving along the left-hand walkway towards the Chinese riverbank. The alluvial soil is clearly visible.*

**Bild 88** zeigt die gleiche Front etwas nach links verschoben.

*Illustration 88 shows the same front, but slightly more to the left.*

**Bild 89** unge-IlKUGHUJOHLFKH Ausblick bei ge- |൵QHWHU'UHKEU cke von dem auf Bild 90 mit (x) bezeichneten Landungssteg der )lKUVWDWLRQDXV aufgenommen, bei deutlich sichtbarem Schwemmland.

#### *Illustration 89*

*is almost the same view, photographed from the landing stage of the ferry (indicated by (x) in ,OOXVWUDWLRQ with the swing bridge in open position; the alluvial soil is clearly visible.* 

**Bild 90** zeigt die regulierte Quaifront südlich der Dreh-EUFNHLQLKUHUJDQ]HQ/lQgenausdehnung, von der Drehbrücke aus aufgenommen. Das Schwemmland südlich der Drehbrücke ist in seiner ganze Breitenausdehnung sichtbar.

*Illustration 90 photographed from the swing bridge, shows the entire length of the managed quay front to the south of the swing bridge. The entire width of the alluvial land to the south of the swing bridge is visible.*

**Bild 91** zeigt die gleiche Uferfront von einer am Ende der nördlich der Drehbrücke eben in Bau be- ¿QGOLFKHQ4XDLNRQVWUXNWLRQJHOHJHQHQ3RVLWLRQDXV EHWUDFKWHWEHLJH|൵QHWHU'UHKEUFNH'DV Schwemmland südlich der Drehbrücke erscheint wie bisher durch eine rotpunktierte Linie markiert.

*Illustration 91 shows the same riverfront, viewed from a point at the end of the quayside, which is under construction, to the north of the swing bridge, with the swing bridge open. The alluvial land to the south of the swing bridge is indicated as before by a red dashed line.*

**Bild 92** ]HLJWGLHLQ.RQVWUXNWLRQEH¿QGOLFKH4XDLZDQGQ|UGOLFKGHU'UHKEUFNHPLW%OLFNJHJHQ6GHQDXIJHQRPPHQYRP Endpunkte der Uferkonstruktion in der Höhe der Hsin Lung Chie (Stand der Arbeiten um Mitte September 1911).

*Illustration 92 shows the quay wall under construction to the north of the swing bridge, photographed facing south from the endpoint of the riverbank construction, at the junction with the Hsin Lung Chie* [Road] *(state of work around mid-September 1911).*

**Bild 93** die gleiche Konstruktion gegen Norden. Diese und das vorhergehende Bild zeigen deutlich wieviel mit Rücksicht auf die Abbröckelung der Uferfront im Süden der Drehbrücke die Konstruktion nördlich der Drehbrücke zwecks Erreichung einer gradlini-JHQ8IHUNRQWXUQDFKHLQZlUWVJHUFNWZHUGHQPXVVWH

*Illustration 93 presents the same construction, facing north. This picture and the previous one clearly show how much, with respect to the crumbling of the riverbank to the south of the swing bridge, construction works to the north of the bridge needed to be moved inwards in order to achieve a straight bank.*

### **VII. Uferfront nördlich der Drehbrücke (Bilder 94–115 inkl.)**  *Riverfront to the north of the swing bridge (Illustrations 94–115)*

**Bild 94** zeigt die Uferfront unserer Niederlassung nördlich der Drehbrücke bis zur Biegung des Peiho neben der Kathedrale, welche im Hintergrunde des Bildes in der Mitte sichtbar ist. Am rechten Randes des Bildes ist die neue Quaikonstruktion nördlich der Drehbrücke deutlich hervorragend sichtbar. Sowohl aus dieser als aus den nunmehr folgenden Aufnahmen ist deutlich zu ersehen, dass die 0HKU]DKOGHU+lXVHUQ|UGOLFKGHV ausgebauten Teiles der Uferstraße ziemlich nahe an das Ufer herangerückt sind, so daß zur Durchführung der weiteren Quaiarbeiten entsprechende Expropriationen erforderlich sein werden.

*Illustration 94 shows the riverfront of our concession to the north of the swing bridge all the way to the bend in the Peiho* [River] *next to the cathedral, which is visible in the background at the centre of the picture.* 

*On the right edge of the photograph we can see the new quay construction to the north of the swing bridge with great clarity. In this photograph and the following ones, it is easy to spot that the majority of the houses to the north of this developed section of the Riverside Road were built fairly close to the waterfront, which means that the execution of any further quay construction works will certainly necessitate the expropriation of the properties concerned.*

**Bild 95** zeigt unsere Uferfront knapp hinter der in Konstruktion EH¿QGOLFKHQ4XDLZDQGQ|UGOLFKGHU Drehbrücke; am linken Rande des Bildes ist ein Holzlager am Flussufer, weiters der Rammbock der neuen Quaikonstruktion, im Hintergrunde (x) eine chinesische Zigarettenfabrik auf chinesischem Gebiet sichtbar. Das Bild ist von einem der zahlreichen ÀXVVDXIZlUWVJHKHQGHQ<DOXKRO]- À|VVHDXVDXIJHQRPPHQ

*Illustration 95 shows our riverfront just behind the quay wall under construction to the north of the swing bridge; on the left edge of the photograph we can see a woodyard on the river bank, then the ram for the new quay construction; in the background stands a Chinese cigarette factory (x) on Chinese territory. This photograph was taken from one of the many Yalu wooden rafts travelling up the river.*

**Bild 96** zeigt eine Aufnahme in entgegengesetzter Richtung gegen die Kathedrale zu. *Illustration 96 shows a picture in the opposite direction, towards the cathedral.*

**Bild 97** in gleicher Richtung von dem auf Bild 96 sichtbaren Flosse aus weiter gegen Norden schreitend. *Illustration 97 ZDVSKRWRJUDSKHGFRQWLQXLQJQRUWKZDUGVIURPWKHUDIWVGHSLFWHGLQ,OOXVWUDWLRQLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQ*

**Bild 98** in gleicher Richtung noch weiter nördlich, zur Rechten ein chinesischer Getreidespeicher mit zum Teil durch Holzkonstruktion geschützten Uferfront mit Landungsbrücke.

*Illustration 98 was photographed even further north, in the same direction: to the right a Chinese granary with a landing jetty, whose riverbank is partly protected by a wooden construction.*

**Bild 99** zeigt denselben Teil der Uferfront gegen Süden gesehen mit Landungsbrücke (vide auch Bild 112).

#### *Illustration 99*

*shows the same section of the riverfront facing south, with a landing jetty (see also ,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 100** zeigt den Verlauf unserer Uferfront nördlich der Drehbrücke bis zur Flussbiegung an der Kathedrale von einem Punkte nahe der Flussbiegung aus aufgenommen. Wie ersichtlich ist der Dschunkenverkehr auf unserer Uferfront mangels einer regulierten 8IHUIURQWHLQVSlUOLFKHUZlKUHQGDPJHJHQEHUOLHJHQGHQFKLQHVLVFKHQ8IHU]DKOUHLFKH'VFKXQNHQDQJHOHJWKDEHQ3XQNWDLP+LQtergrunde) bezeichnet ein auf dem sogenannten Marinegrundstück der Niederlassung aufgestelltes großes japanisches Reklameschild (vide auch Bild 108)

*Illustration 100 shows the course of our riverfront to the north of the swing bridge up to the bend in the river at the cathedral, SKRWRJUDSKHGIURPDYDQWDJHSRLQWFORVHWRWKHEHQG\$VZHFDQVHHWKHMXQNWUD৽FDORQJRXUULYHUEDQNLVVSDUVHRZLQJWRDODFNRI river management, whereas numerous junks have docked on the opposite Chinese side. Point a (in the background) indicates a large -DSDQHVHDGYHUWLVLQJVLJQZKLFKZDVVHWXSRQWKHVRFDOOHG0DULQH3URSHUW\RIWKHFRQFHVVLRQVHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQ*

**Bild 101** zeigt die katholische Kirche auf chinesischen Gebiet an der Mündung des Kaiserkanals (linke Bildseite) und an der Biegung des Peiho gegen Osten (rechts) gelegen (Aufnahme von unserer Uferfront aus).

#### *Illustration 101*

*shows the Catholic church on Chinese territory, situated at the mouth of the Imperial Canal (left side of the picture) in the bend in the Peiho* [River] *(right) facing east (this photograph was taken from our riverbank).*

**Bild 102** zeigt eine Aufnahme gegen die Mündung des Kaiserkanals zu, von der Sohle unserer Uferfront an der Flussbiegung aus aufgenommen; der Dschunkenverkehr an diesem Kreuzpunkte der Wasser-VWUDHQLVWHLQlXßerst reger. Auf dem Bilde sind auch deutlich die Anschwemmungen an der Biegung unserer Uferfront gegen Osten ersichtlich.

*Illustration 102 is a photograph taken from the underside of our riverbank in the river bend facing the mouth of the Imperial Ca-QDOMXQNWUD৽FDWWKLVZDWHUZD\LQWHUVHFWLRQLVYHU\EXV\2QWKLVSLFWXUHRQHFDQDOVRVHHFOHDUO\WKHDOOXYLDOVRLOLQWKHEHQGLQRXU riverfront facing east.*

**Bild 103** zeigt die gleiche Aussicht, nur etwas gegen links zu verschoben mit einer chinesischen Polizeistation und der die beiden Ufer verbindenden )lKUH]XU/LQNHQ

### *Illustration 103*

*shows the same view, just a little further left, featuring a Chinese police station and, to the left, a ferry that connects both riverbanks.*

**Bild 105 & 106** JOHLFKIDOOVOlQJVXQVHUHU8IHUIURQWDOOPlKOLFKJHQ2VWHQIRUWVFKUHLWHQG *Illustrations 105 & 106 show the same views as we progress towards the east along our riverfront.*

**Bild 104** ]HLJWGLH.DWKHGUDOHDXVXQPLWWHOEDUHU1lKHYRQXQVHUHU8IHUVHLWHDXVJHVHKHQ *Illustration 104 shows the cathedral at close range, seen from our riverbank.*

**Bild 107** endlich zeigt unsere, für den Verkehr weniger geeignete hochgelegene Uferfront östlich der Kathedrale, von der Grenze unserer Niederlassung und der Chinesenstadt am Peihoufer aus aufgenommen.

*Illustration 107 ¿QDOO\VKRZVRXUKLJKULYHUEDQNZKLFKLVQRWYHU\VXLWDEOHIRUWUD৽FWRWKHHDVWRI the cathedral, photographed from the border between our concession and the Chinese City running along the bank of the Peiho.*

Die nun folgenden Aufnahmen zeigen unsere Uferfront nördlich der Drehbrücke bis zur Kathedrale vom gegenüberliegenden chinesischen Ufer aus aufgenommen.

*The following pictures show our riverfront to the north of the swing bridge up to the cathedral, photographed from the Chinese riverfront opposite.*

**Bild 108** ]HLJWGLH0DUNWKDOOHGHU+%\*ZHOFKHDXVGHU1LHGHUODVVXQJJHK|ULJH0DULQHJUXQGVWFNXPVlXPWDXIGHP0DULQHgrundstück ein großes japanisches Reklameschild (vide auch Bild 17, 18 und 100). Die neue Quaikonstruktion ist zum Teil sichtbar.

*Illustration 108 shows the market hall of the H.B.G., which surrounds the Marine Property that belongs to our concession; on 0DULQH3URSHUW\JURXQGVWDQGVDODUJH-DSDQHVHDGYHUWLVLQJVLJQVHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQV 7KHQHZTXD\FRQVWUXFWLRQLV party visible.*

**Bild 109** zeigt unsere Uferfront etwas weiter gegen Norden, desgleichen.

*Illustration 109 shows our riverfront somewhat further north, with the same motif.*

**Bild 110 & 111** Die beiden letzteren Aufnahmen sind von Strohdschunken im Fluss aus aufgenommen. Zwei identische Punkte der beiden Aufnahmen sind mit (x) bezeichnet. Das gutgebaute Chinesenhaus mit der vorliegenden durch Holzkonstruktion geschützten Uferfront ist ein Töpfer.

*Illustrations 110 & 111 These two photographs were taken from thatched junks on the river. Two identical points in the two pictures are indicated by (x). The well-built Chinese house whose river frontage is protected by a wooden construction belongs to a potter.*

**Bild 112** zeigt einen auf Bild 98 & 99 ersichtlichen Teil der Uferfront von der gegenüberliegenden Flußseite aus; das chinesische +DXVKLQWHUGHU+RO]NRQVWUXNWLRQGHU8IHUIURQWLVWHLQJU|HUHV\*HWUHLGHJHVFKlIW

*Illustration 112 VKRZVDVHFWLRQRIWKHULYHUIURQWDVGHSLFWHGRQ,OOXVWUDWLRQV IURPWKHRSSRVLWHVLGH7KH&KLQHVHKRXVH behind the wooden construction on the river frontage is a large cereal business.*

**Bild 113** zeigt die gegenüberliegende chinesische Uferfront mit großen Strohlagern und einem 7|SIHUZDUHQJHVFKlIWH

*Illustration 113 shows the Chinese riverfront opposite, featuring large straw storage areas and a pottery shop.*

**Bild 114 & 115** zeigen einen noch weiter nach Norden gelegenen Teil unserer Uferfront mit zwei bereits auf Bild 110 im Hintergrunde links sichtbaren Dschunken; nicht weit von der Flussbiegung bei der Kathedrale entfernt. Der auf Bild 114 ersichtliche Schornstein gehört zu der auf chinesischer Seite JHOHJHQHQ(OHNWUL]LWlWVDQlage der Tramwaygesellschaft östliche der Kathedrale (vide auch Bild 84 &

85).

*Illustrations 114 & 115 show another section of our riverfront lying even further north — the two junks could already be seen in ,OOXVWUDWLRQLQWKHEDFNJURXQGRQWKHOHIW²QRWIDUIURPWKHULYHUEHQGQHDUE\WKHFDWKHGUDO7KHFKLPQH\LQ,OOXVWUDWLRQLV SDUWRIWKHSRZHUVWDWLRQRIWKH7UDPZD\&RPSDQ\VWDQGLQJRQWKH&KLQHVHVLGHWRWKHHDVWRIWKHFDWKHGUDOVHHDOVR,OOXVWUDWLRQV* 

### **Bibliography – References**

#### **Abbreviations**

HHStA Haus-, Hof und Staatsarchiv [Austrian State Archives], Vienna/Austria OMO Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient [Austrian Monthly Journal for the Orient]

#### **Consulted Archives**

Austrian National Library, Vienna General Collection Graphic Source Collection Austrian State Archives, Vienna Haus- Hof- und Staatsarchiv [House, Court and State Archives] Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv [General Administration Archives] Kriegsarchiv [War Archives]

#### **Primary Sources**

#### **Archival source**

[Anonymous 1911]

Oesterr.-ungar. Niederlassung Tientsin [Bound album with 115 hand-numbered black-and-white-photographs]; Erklärung und Beschreibung der einzelnen Aufnahmen [15 typewritten A4 pages]; Plan der österreich-ungarisch. Niederlassung in Tientsin, 0,6 Quadratkilometer [hand-drawn and hand-coloured map, 69 × 51cms]. Austrian National Library Vienna, (Graphic Source Collection)

#### **Quoted journals**

Amtsblatt zur Wiener Zeitung und Zentral-Anzeiger für Handel und Gewerbe Arbeiter-Zeitung Brixener Kirchenblatt China Times Czernowitzer Tagblatt Danzers Armee-Zeitung Der Bautechniker Die Fackel Die Presse Die Zeit (Vienna) Echo aus Pilsen und Westböhmen (Pilsen)

Gentleman's Magazine Grazer Tagblatt Gr.- Becskereker Wochenblatt (Das) Handels-Museum. Mit Beilagen: Monats-, Quartals- und Jahresberichte der k.u.k. österr. ungar. Konsularämter. Herausgegeben vom k.u.k. Handels Museum (Vienna) Illustrirtes Wiener Extrablatt Kikeriki – Humoristisches Volksblatt (Linzer) Tagespost Mährisches Tagblatt Min-Schin-Pao (Tientsin) Mittheilungen der kaiserlichen und königlichen Geographischen Gesellschaft in Wien Mitteilungen des österr.-ungar. Export-Vereins (Vienna) Neue Freie Presse Neues Wiener Tagblatt (Neuigkeits) Welt-Blatt North-China Herald (Shanghai) Oesterreichischer Beobachter Österreichs Illustrierte Zeitung (Vienna) Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient (Vienna) [OMO] gVWHUUHLFKLVFKH0RQDWVVFKULIWIUGHQ|൵HQWOLFKHQ Baudienst Peking Jih-Pao Peking & Tientsin Times Pester Lloyd (Budapest) Reichspost Salzburger Chronik für Stadt und Land 6FLHQWL¿F\$PHULFDQ Tageblatt für Nord-China Tientsin and Peking Times (The) Tientsin Sunday Journal Times (London) (Das) Vaterland Vasárnapi Újság (Budapest) Wiener Abendpost, Beilage zur Wiener Zeitung Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung Wiener Zeitung Xinghua ribao (Tianjin) Zeitschrift des Österreichischen Ingenieurs- und Architekten-Vereins (Vienna) Znaimer Wochenblatt

#### **Printed material**

Astor House Hotel: Guide to Tientsin. Tientsin 1907.


9DViUQDSL ÒMViJ 0iMXV > 0D\ @ ±


#### **Secondary Sources**


ence (Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 53; Cham 2020, 45–69.


demiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, Vol. 15, No. 1/3 (1962), 155–159.


des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs, Sonderband 6. Wien 2002.


of the Löwendahl – von der Burg collection, 2 vols. Hua Hin 2008.


5XKU8QLYHUVLWlW %RFKXP :LHVEDGHQ 101–122.


## **Glossary of Chinese-English transcriptions**

Baihe ⲭ⋣ (called Haihe ⎧⋣ [Hai River] below WKHFRQÀXHQFHRI%DLKHDQG\*UDQG&DQDO %R[HU8SULVLQJVHH<LKHWXDQ㗙઼ൈ Movement &KHQJOL㻿, lit. 'within the city (walls)', native FLW\³&KLQHVHFLW\´ 'D<XQKHབྷ䙻⋣\*UDQG&DQDO 'DJXབྷ⋭7DNX 'RQJIXTLDRᶡ⎞⁻, i.e. Eastern Pontoon Bridge Dongmen ᶡ䮰LH(DVW\*DWH 'XWRQJ<DPHQཙ⍕䜭㎡㺉䮰, i.e. Tianjin 3URYLVLRQDO\*RYHUQPHQW (DVWHUQ3RQWRRQ%ULGJHVHH'RQJIXTLDR (DVW\*DWHVHH'RQJPHQ Haihe, i.e. Hai River, see Bai He Haiho, see Hai He and Bai He Hedong ⋣ᶡ+RWXQJ+RWXQJWRGD\7LDQMLQ¶V +HEHLOLWÃQRUWKRIWKHULYHUµGLVWULFW +RWXQJVHH+HGRQJ +VLQ/XQJ'VFKLHVHH;LQJORQJMLH +VLXWVDL&ROOHJHVHH6DQTXVKX\XDQ Jamen, see Yamen -LQPHQEDRMLDWXVKXR⍕䮰؍⭢െ䃜>([SODQDWLRQRI the Tientsin/Tianjin baojia plan] Jintang Bridge 䠁⒟⁻&KLQ7DQJ%ULGJH )LYH\$YHQXHV+LVWRULF'LVWULFWLQWKHIRUPHU%ULWLVK FRQFHVVLRQVHH:XGDGDR \*XDQGLPLDR䰌ᑍᔏ7HPSOHRIWKH:DU\*RG \*XDQGL \*UDQG&DQDOVHH'D<XQKH Jamen, see Yamen 0X0RX⮍>DUHDPHDVXUH@ Paiho, see Baihe Pei Ho, see Baihe 6DOW,QVSHFWRUV2൶FHVHH<DQJXDQWLQJ 6DQJXDQPLDRйᇈᔏ6DQJXDQWHPSOH 6DQFKX6KX\XDQ+VLXWVDL&ROOHJHVHH6DQTX VKX\XDQ 6DQTXVKX\XDQйਆᴨ䲒6DQTX\$FDGHP\

6KDQ[LKXLJXDQኡ㾯ᴳ佘+RXVHRIWKH6KDQ[L WUDGLQJJXLOG 6KLGVHGMLVHH6KL]LMLH 6KL]LMLHॱᆇ㺇6KL]L6WUHHW 6KXQWDL\DQJKDQJ丶⌠⌻㹼)LVFKHU &R 7DNXVHH'DJX 7DQJ6KDR\Lୀ㍩ܰ7LHQWVLQ¶V&XVWRPV'DRWDL 7LDQMLQIHQVLཙ⍕࠶ਨ2൶FHRIWKH&LUFXLW ,QWHQGDQWRI7LHQWVLQ 7LHQWVLQ3URYLVLRQDO\*RYHUQPHQW73\*VHH'XWRQJ Yamen Tientsin – Tianjin (Pinyin transcription system, as a FLW\LQSRVWOLEHUDWHG&KLQD 7LDQMLQµ([KLELWLRQRI:RUOG\$UFKLWHFWXUH¶² ZDQJXRMLDQ]KXERODQKXL㩜഻ᔪㇹঊ㿭ᴳ Tianjin wei ཙ⍕㺋DGPLQLVWUDWLYHUDQNRIWKHFLW\ RI7LDQMLQIURPWKHWLPHVRIWKH0LQJG\QDVW\ Yongle era (early 15thFHQWXU\WRWKH4LQJG\QDVW\ <RQJ]KHQJHUDVODWHUVXEVHTXHQWO\ changed to *zhou* ᐎ (department) and *xian* 㑓 FLUFXLW 7LDQMLQ0XVHXPRI0RGHUQ+LVWRU\>-LQGDL7LDQMLQ %RZXJXDQ䘁ԓཙ⍕ঊ⢙佘] 7LDQ[LDQ7HD\*DUGHQ7LDQ[LDQFKD\XDQཙԉ㥦ൂ 7RQJMLFKD\XDQ਼䳶㥦ൂIRU7HD\*DUGHQ 7XWXQJ<DPHQVHH'XWRQJ<DPHQ :HQKXD\LFKDQ᮷ॆ䚪⭒>FXOWXUDOKHULWDJH@ :XGDGDRӄབྷ䚃)LYH\$YHQXHV+LVWRULF'LVWULFW ;LQJORQJMLH㠸䲶㺇+VLQ/XQJ'VFKLHPDLQURDG LQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ Yamen 㺉䮰, or Jamen <DQJXDQWLQJ咭ᇈᔣ6DOW,QVSHFWRU¶V2൶FH <HQ.XDQ6DOW,QVSHFWRUV2൶FHVHH<DQJXDQWLQJ <LKHWXDQ㗙઼ൈ movement (Boxer Uprising) <LVKLIHQJTLQJTXᔿ付ᛵ॰, literally: 'scenic area LQWKH,WDOLDQVW\OH¶IRUPHU,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQ <XDQ6KLNDL㺱цࠡ\*HQHUDO\*RYHUQRURIWKH=KLOL province

## **Index**

Academia Sinica Archive (Taiwan) 68 Accurti, Gino (general manager of the Hotung Baugesellschaft) 109, 114 Accurti, Hugo (secretary of the Austro-Hungarian concession, director of Hotung Baugesellschaft) 71, 80, 109–112, 114, 117, 131, 138–140, 143, 145, 147–148, 150 Administrative Archive [Verwaltungsarchiv], Vienna 48 Aehrenthal, Count Alois Lexa von (Minister of )RUHLJQ\$൵DLUVLQ9LHQQD Airone (Austrian vessel) 15–16 Alps 92 America (American concession) 31, 55, 84 Amtsblatt zur Wiener Zeitung und Zentral-Anzeiger IU+DQGHOXQG\*HZHUEH>2൶FLDO-RXUQDO supplement to the Vienna Journal and Central Gazette for Trade and Commerce] 105, 109 Andès, K. J. 29 Andres, Eduard (k.u.k. consulate secretary, Austro-Hungarian concession) 109, 131, 143 Anxi 22 Armenschule [also see: charity school, Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin] 121, 139–140, 224 Aspern (Austrian vessel) 35 Astor House Hotel Guide to Tientsin 105 Astor House Hotel (in the British concession of Tientsin) 105, 164 Auer, Alois 17 Aufsichtsrat [supervisory board] 114 Australian National University 49 Austria 9–11, 13–18, 23, 25, 30–32, 40, 44, 47–48, 53–54, 75, 77, 79, 85, 87, 89, 92, 94–95, 105–106, 115, 117, 143, 157–159, 171–172, 180–182, 184 Austria-Hungary 8–10, 13–14, 20, 22–23, 25, 27– 32, 35, 38, 41, 44, 47–48, 53–57, 68, 71, 74–75, 80–81, 85, 87, 89, 102, 105, 115, 117, 120, 131, 140, 148, 152, 156, 162, 171, 180, 182–184 Austrian Academy of Sciences (Vienna) 12 Austrian (Swing) Bridge [also see Drehbrücke], Austro-Hungarian Bridge (in the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin) 105, 107–108, 134–135, 168–169, 171–172, 174–175, 183–184 Austrian Lloyd 34, 77, 79, 85, 89, 157 Austrian National Library (incl. Picture Archives and Graphics Department) 7–9, 12, 17, 36–38, 47, 54, 131, 133, 135–137, 139

Austrian State Archives (Vienna) 7, 9–10, 12, 48, 56, 63–64, 67–69, 71–74, 87–92, 96–104, 109– 113, 116, 119–132, 140–142, 144–145, 147, 149– 153, 155, 158–159 Austrian Style Riverfront (Tianjin) 11–12, 171, 174–175, 179, 184 Austro-Hungarian Aid Association for Northern China [Oesterr. ungar. Hilfsverein für Nord-China] 13 Austro-Hungarian Concession 7–14, 39–45, 47– 49, 53–54, 56, 58, 60–61, 63–64, 67–69, 71–75, 77, 79–80, 82–87, 89–93, 95–103, 105–106, 108– 112, 114–122, 126–127, 131–135, 138–141, 143, 147–148, 152–159, 161, 168–173, 175–185 Babo, August Wilhelm von 29, 30 Babo, Maximilian Freiherr von 29 Baihe/Haihe [Bai/Hai River] 16, 25, 36, 38–39, 61 Bank of China 162 Baron-Czikann-Straße [Baron Czikann Street] 91, 110, 134–138, 141, 143, 145, 154, 171 Batang 22 Batu Khan 23 Bauer, Franz (member of the district council of the Austro-Hungarian concession) 118, 131 Bauer, Paul (Austrian acting honorary consul in Tientsin, 1922–38) 35, 158–159 %DX¿UPD-RKDQQ%UXQQHU>VHH%UXQQHU&RQVWUXFWLRQ Company] 193 Beijing 7, 11, 13, 15, 21–23, 27, 29, 32–33, 35, 37–38, 45, 48, 54–55, 65, 71, 74–75, 80, 82, 87, 89, 91–93, 95–96, 102–103, 105, 109–110, 118, 120–121, 126, 131, 140–141, 148, 158, 161, 170– 171, 183, 227 Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal 60 Beijing Legation Archive (Austria-Hungary) 48 Beijing & Tianjin Liberation Battle (1948) 170– 171 Belgian Tramway Company 104, 134–135, 189 Belgium 31, 38, 42, 47, 55, 102, 156 Berchtold, Count Leopold (Minister of Foreign \$൵DLUV9LHQQD Bernauer, Carl/Karl (Austrian Vice Consul for Tientsin, 1901–08) 41, 43–44, 65, 67–68, 71, 74, 87, 91, 93–95, 99, 102–103, 109, 117–118, 121, 148 Bohai Bay/Sea/Gulf of 7, 35, 95, 161 Bombay 15, 79

Bosnia and Herzegovina 53


Compagnie Internationale de Tramways et d'Éclairage de Tientsin (French, for Belgian tramway company, Tientsin) 102–104, 118, 134– 135, 146


Customs *Daotai*, Tientsin 42, 65 &]HUPDN¿UP &]LNDQQYRQ:DKOERUQ0RULW])UHLKHUUYRQ PLQLVWHULQWKHNXN%HLMLQJOHJDWLRQ±  ± 'DJRX'DJX 'DL;LDQJORQJ7LDQMLQ&LW\0D\RU 'DMLDQOX Dali 22 'DQVKXL 'DQWH6TXDUHIRUPHU,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQ Danzers Armee-Zeitung (Austrian army MRXUQDO 'DV+DQGHOV0XVHXP\$XVWULDQMRXUQDO Department of Architecture (Technical University of 0XQLFK Der Bautechniker [The Building Technician] , \$XVWULDQMRXUQDO GHV)RXUV:DOGHURGH&RXQW 'HWDFKHPHQW\$XVWULDQPDULQHVLQ7LHQWVLQVHH DOVR0DULQH'HWDFKHPHQW ± ± 'HXWVFKHU.OXE>\*HUPDQ&OXE7LHQWVLQ@ 'LH)DFNHO\$XVWULDQMRXUQDO 'LHWULFK0¿UPLQ6KDQJKDL 7LHQWVLQ 'LHWULFKVWHLQ0RUL]&RXQW ± 'LVQH\¿FDWLRQ 'RORQQRU/DPDPLDR Dong fuqiao, Dongfu [Eastern Pontoon Bridge, \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ@ 'RQJPHQLH(DVW\*DWH 'RQJ;XQ 'RZDJHU(PSUHVV ± Drehbrücke [Swing Bridge in the Austro-Hungarian FRQFHVVLRQVHHDOVR\$XVWULDQ%ULGJH@ ±± Drew, Edward B. 22 Drum Tower (in present day's Tianjin site of the IRUPHU,WDOLDQFRQFHVVLRQ ± 'VFKXQNHQ+DIHQ3URMHFW 'XDO0RQDUFK\ Dunhuang 22 (DVW\$VLD ±±± (DVW\$VLDQ6TXDGURQ (FKRDXV3LOVHQXQG:HVWE|KPHQ ± (J\SW (KUHQIHOG)ULW] (L൵HO7RZHU3DULV (LJKW1DWLRQ\$OOLDQFH

(LJKW3RZHU\$OOLDQFH>EDJXROLDQMXQ@ Eisenbahndamm [railway embankment, in the \$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ@ (PSUHVV(OLVDEHWKVWHDPERDW (QGOLFKHU6WHSKDQ/DGLVODXV (QJODQG (UGpO\L,JQD] (ULFKVHQ3HWHU (U]KHU]RJ)ULHGULFK\$XVWULDQYHVVHO (XURSH(XURSHDQ ±± ± ([SHGLWLRQDU\)RUFHVRIWKH(LJKW1DWLRQ Alliance 54 )D)RX6L%DUUDFNV7LHQWVLQ )DUDJy(GPXQG )DU(DVW )DVDQD\$XVWULDQYHVVHO )HOOQHU)HUGLQDQG\$XVWULDQDUFKLWHFW )HOOQHU +HOPHUDUFKLWHFWXUDO¿UPLQ9LHQQD \$XVWULD )HQJ\*XR]KDQJSUHVLGHQWRIWKH5HSXEOLFRI &KLQD )HQJ\*XR=KDQJ5HVLGHQFH7LDQMLQ ± )HQJ-LFDL7LDQMLQZULWHU )HQJ<K)XKRXVHRZQHUDQGVKRSNHHSHU 7LHQWVLQ )LHOGV'UDNH1RDK ± )LUPD&]HUPDN7HSOLW] )LVFKHU(PLO6RZQHURIWKHRQO\\$XVWULDQWUDGLQJ house in Tientsin, member of the district council of WKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQFRQFHVVLRQ ± )LYH\$YHQXHV+LVWRULF'LVWULFW>VHHDOVR:XGDGDR@LQ WKHIRUPHU%ULWLVKFRQFHVVLRQ )ORUHQFH )RXQWDLQRI\$SROOR9HUVDLOOHV&DVWOHQHDU 3DULV ± )UDQFH ± )UDQFLV-RVHSK(PSHURURI\$XVWULD ± )UDQ])HUGLQDQG\$UFKGXNHRI\$XVWULD )UHLQDGHPHW]-RVHI )UHQFK&RQFHVVLRQLQ7LHQWVLQ7LDQMLQ )UH\WDJ %HUQGWSXEOLVKHUV )ULHGKRI>FHPHWHU\RIWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ FRQFHVVLRQ@ )ULHV/XGZLJYRQ )ULHV6LJPXQGYRQ )XFKV&DVSDU )XFKV/RUHQ]

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143, 145, 148–149, 154, 162, 167–168, 179, 195, 203, 208, 211, 227, 231, 238–239 Italian Consulate (in Tientsin) 138, 210 Italy 10, 42, 47, 53, 55, 74, 79, 156, 159, 162, 168, 180–184 Jadot, L. (engineer, manager of the *Compagnie de Tramways*] 102–103 Jamen (see Yamen) 84 Jang-Gi-Teh (local Chief of Police) 152 Japan 7, 16–17, 20–22, 27, 32–35, 44, 47, 53, 55, 74, 80, 82, 92, 115, 159, 182 Japanese Concession (in Tientsin) 74, 119 Jiaozhou 31 Ji Jinzhai (businessman in Tientsin) 159 Jinan 31 Jintang Bridge 171 Kaifeng 21 Kaiserin Elisabeth (Austrian vessel) 35 Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia (Austrian vessel) 35 Kaiserkanal [Imperial Canal] 239, 251 Kanalstraße [Canal Street in the Austro-Hungarin concession] 222–224 Kaoliangspiritus Brennerei [Kaoling distillery, a sorghum/gaoliang distillery] 222–223 Karl [I], Emperor of Austria-Hungaria 117, 156 Karl Ludwig, Archduke 32 Ketteler, Klemens von 35 Khiakhta 22 Kikeriki! Humoristisches Volksblatt (Austrian humoristic journal) 75–76 k.k. österreichische Orient- und Überseegesellschaft [Imperial and Royal Austrian Oriental and Overseas Society] 117 k.k. (private) Südbahn-Gesellschaft [(private) Austrian Southern Railway Company] 92 Klagenfurt (capital of Carinthia, Austria) 13, 118 Klaproth, Heinrich Julius von 17 Klein, Friedrich (a former k.u.k. district commissioner) 82–83, 93, 98–99 Kobr, Miroslav (k.u.k. consul of the Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin, 1908–12) 121, 148, 152 Koerber, Ernest von (Austrian prime minister) 55 Konsularakademie [Consular Academy] 22 Konsulargarten [Consulate's garden, in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 195, 197 Konsulatgasse [Consulate Street in the Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin] 134 Konsulatsgebäude [Consulate building in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 190, 193, 195, 210

Konsulatsnebengebäude [Consulate annexe building in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 189, 191, 194 Korsten, K. (engineer) 74 Kowarski [von Stepowron], Ferdinand (a Silesiaborn architect from Vienna) 89–92, 117 Kraus, Karl 77 Kreitner, Gustav 22 Kremsir, Gustav 31 Kriegsgefangenenfürsorge [Austrian welfare organization for the prisoners of war] 159 Kronen [Austrian crowns] 95, 105 Kuczynski, Eugen Ritter von (minister in the k.u.k. Beijing legation, 1905–11) 120, 148 Kühnert, Franz 22 k.u.k. ['imperial and royal' in Austria-Hungary] 35, 48, 55–56, 61, 67–68, 71, 82, 85, 95–96, 103, 105, 109, 114–118, 120–121, 131, 148, 154, 156–157, 159, 222, 224, 227 k.u.k. Legation in Beijing 23, 32, 48, 54, 87, 89, 105, 118, 141, 183, 227 Landing jetty/stage 242, 249 Lanzhou 22, 30 Lappa 29 Laptew, N. (Russian Consul) 102 League of Nations 157 Leqing (Bay) 34–35 Liang Tun Yüen, Customs Taotai 93 Library of Congress, Washington D.C. (USA) 16, 46, 57, 59–60, 146 Liebermann, J. L. 21 Li (general director of the Northern Ports) 71 Li Hongzhang (governor-generals of Zhili (now Hebei) Province) 31, 168 Li (k.u.k. interpreter) 121, 224 Li Tun Kann (house owner and holder of a pawn shop, Tientsin) 118 Liu Xiangrong 43 London Times 75 Lord Salisbury (British Prime Minister) 8 Lovepik 174 Ludwig, Ernst (Austrian Interim Consul in Tientsin, 1905–06) 82, 92, 94, 99, 115, 117, 148 Macau (Macao), Aomen 21–22 Madrolle's Guide Books 105 Mandl, Hermann 30–31 Mao/Maoist period 10, 49, 159, 161, 183 Marco Polo Plaza, former Italian concession 168 Marine-Detach(e)ment (see also Detach(e)ment) [marine detachments in the Austro-Hungarian

concession] 71

Marinegrundstück [Marine Property] 198, 250, 255 Marinekaserne des k.u.k. Detachements [barracks to house marines of the k.u.k. detachment to Tientsin] 222 Markthalle [Market Hall in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 134, 195, 198, 255 Materna, Fritz 29 Mauthner, Emil 44 Metropolitan Police Board, Chinese City, Tientsin 108 Mexican Dollars 91, 121 Mexico 9 Meyers Konversationslexikon 53 Ming (Period) 45 Ming Tombs 22 0LQLVWU\RI)RUHLJQ\$൵DLUV9LHQQD 55, 67–68, 71, 74, 87, 89, 91, 93–95, 99, 101, 109, 120–121, 131, 148, 152, 154–155 Min-Schin-Pao (newspaper) 131 0LUWO&RPPDQGDQW/LQLHQVFKL൵V&DSLWlQ Mitura (provisional concession secretary) 131 0|OOHQGRU൵2WWR)UDQ]YRQ Möltner, Zeno 31 Montecuccoli, Rudolf Count (k.u.k. Escadre Kommandant Contre-Admiral) 61, 64–65, 134 Mu An Middle School, Tianjin 176 Mu, Mou 55, 69, 148, 159 0XQL]LSDOLWlWVJHElXGH>0XQLFLSDO%XLOGLQJLQVLGH the Austro-Hungarian concession] 202, 220 Muslim (provinces, regions) 11 Mustercomptoir [sample collection] 117 Nanguan (Bay, Fujian) 34–35 Nanjing 15, 21–22 Nanjing, Treaty of (1842) 15, 21 Nanshi (Southern City, Tianjin) 168 Nebenstraße [Side Street, Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin] 143, 212 1HPHþHN2WWRNDU ± Netherlands 11, 55, 157 Neue Freie Presse [New Free Press] 20, 32, 35–36, 38, 53–54 Neue Straße [New Street in the Austrian-Hungarian concession in Tientsin] 110 1HXH:LHQHU+DQGHOVDNDGHPLH>1HZ9LHQQHVH Commercial Academy] 119 Niederlassungsreglement [Concession Regulation of the Austro-Hungarian concession] 71, 118–121 Ningbo 15 Niuzhuang 29 1RWUH'DPHGHV9LFWRLUHVFKXUFKLQ7LHQWVLQVHH also Cathedral) 134–135

Novara (Austrian vessel) 14, 23, 32 2HVWHUUXQJDU+LOIVYHUHLQIU1RUG&KLQD>\$XVWUR Hungarian Aid Association for North China] 13 2൶FHRIWKH&LUFXLW,QWHQGDQWRI7LHQWVLQ 2¶1HLOO-HDQSULQFLSDOVKDUHKROGHURIWKH H.B.G.) 118 2SLXP:DU 2ULHQWDOLVFKH\$NDGHPLH>2ULHQWDO\$FDGHP\@ 2ULHQWDOLVFKHV0XVHXP>2ULHQWDO0XVHXP 9LHQQD@ 2VWDVLDWLVFKH5XQGVFKDX>(DVW\$VLDQ5HYLHZ@ Österreich 48 Österreichische Lloyd [Austrian Lloyd] 92 gVWHUUHLFKLVFKH0RQDWVVFKULIWIUGHQ2ULHQW >\$XVWULDQ0RQWKO\-RXUQDOIRUWKH2ULHQW@ 115, 118 gVWHUUHLFKLVFK8QJDULVFKHU([SRUW9HUHLQ>\$XVWUR Hungarian Export Association] 115 gVWHUUHLFKV,OOXVWULHUWH=HLWXQJ>\$XVWULD¶VLOOXVWUDWHG QHZVSDSHU9LHQQD@ ±± Österreich-Ungarn 57, 68 2XGHQGLMNGHOHJDWHRIWKH'XWFKHPEDVV\LQ Beijing) 158 2YHUEHFN\*XVWDYYRQ\$XVWULDQ&RQVXOLQ+RQJ Kong) 18–19 Paris, France 7–8, 17, 25, 31–32, 117, 162, 172– 173 Pearl River 161 Pei Ho, Peiho, Paiho 25, 38, 55, 68, 71, 87, 98–99, 225, 239, 246, 251, 254 Peking 24–25, 32, 55, 71, 74, 87, 89, 91, 95, 102– 103, 105, 114, 118, 121, 126, 131, 140, 148, 152, 154, 156, 227 3HNLQJ-LK3DRQHZVSDSHU Peking & Tientsin Times 152 3HRSOH¶V5HSXEOLFRI&KLQD Pester Lloyd (German-language daily newspaper in +XQJDU\¶VFDSLWDO%XGDSHVW ± Peter the Great 95 3IHL൵HU,GD 3¿]PDLHU\$XJXVW 3ÀJO.DUO(GOHUYRQ>\*HVDQGWVFKDIWV6FKXW]ZDFK &RPPDQGDQW&RUYHWWHQ&DSLWlQ@ 3/\$>3HRSOH¶V/LEHUDWLRQ\$UP\RIWKHODWHU Communist Party] 162, 171 Poli 31 Police Station (in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 80, 83, 85, 130 Polizeitaotai Yamen [Chinese Police Station Taotai Yamen] 134, 196, 252 Pontoon Bridge 58, 60, 80, 85–86, 88, 92–93, 102, 105–106, 140–141

Private cemetery of the Chu Family (in the Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin) 140, 239 Protestant Christ-Church in Salzburg, Austria 171 Pumpstation [Pumping Station in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 223 Qian Rong 42 Qingdao [German: see also Tsingtau] 11, 31 Qing Dynasty 45 Qinling range 22 Qiongzhou 29 Quaistraße [Quay Street in the former Austro-Hungarian concession] 189, 193 Quanzhou 34–35 Quay (constructions in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 95, 121, 125, 154, 241–243, 255 Railway station (of Tientsin/Tianjin) 55, 74, 82, 84, 102, 105, 108, 156 Red Army 45, 159 Reichspost (newspaper) 21, 29, 31, 109 Ricalton, James 40–41 Rosthorn, Arthur von (Beijing-based Austro-Hungarian "plenipotentiary minister" from 1911– 17) 28–29, 54, 71, 93, 110, 143, 148, 157 Rue des Nations (Paris Universal Exhibition 1900) 162 Russia (Russian consession/settlement) 7, 22, 38, 42, 47, 49, 55, 82, 105, 108, 182 Sageder, Friedrich 32 Salt Commissionary site 74 6DOW,QVSHFWRUV2൶FH Salzburg, Austria 13, 170–171, 176, 184 6DPEXFKL9LNWRU5LWWHU%OHVVYRQ>/LQLHQVFKL൵V &DSLWlQ@ Sammelbassin [reservoir of the Austro-Hungarian concession] 216, 224–225, 230–231 San-chu Shuyuan / Hsiu-tsai College 60 Sanguan temple (in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 58, 61 Sanmen Bay, Zhejiang 35 6DQTX\$FDGHP\LQWKH\$XVWUR+XQJDULDQ concession) 58 Sansha (Bay, Fujian) 34–35 Sarajevo 156 Schantung (Shantung) Peninsula 157 Scherzer, Karl Ritter von 29 Scheyer, Siegfried (architect) 71, 176 Schiener, K. (head of police, Austro-Hungarian concession) 126, 131 Schumpeter, Hugo (k.u.k. consul in Tienstin 1912– 17) 148, 183 Schwer, Hugo (vice-president of the Association of Austrian Exporters) 117

Scramble for concessions 8, 44 Selberg & Schlüter (company of structural and civil engineering, Berlin and Tsingtau) 87 Self-Strengthening Movement 168 Serbia 115, 148 Shanghai 7, 11, 15, 19, 21–23, 25, 27, 29–32, 34, 43, 82, 87, 109, 117–118, 156–157, 159, 161, 179, 183 Shanghai Mercury (newspaper) 118 Shantou 21 Shanxi huiguan [House of the Shanxi trading guild] 58, 61 Shi-dse-dji 68 Shimbo (Chinese policemen) 80 Shizijie [Shizi Street] 152 Shuntai site (Fischer & Co.) 146 Siberia 22, 159 Silesia 89 Silk Road 11 Silvestri, Vice-Consul 55, 58 Singapore 14–15, 21, 79 Sing-Song-Girl houses (in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 144 Singsong Theatre (in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 138, 203–204, 206 Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95 14, 32, 44, 53 Sonderverwaltungszonen [Special Administrative Areas] 158 Special Administrative Areas [Sonderverwaltungszonen] 158 Stadtpark [City Park in Vienna] 181 Steinacker, Arthur 44 Stein, Lorenz von 115 Storck, Wilhelm Ritter von (secretary of the Austro-Hungarian legation in Beijing) 118, 131, 140– 145 Straßenpolizei [Street police] 71 Strauss, Johann (Viennese Waltz composer) 171– 172, 180–181 Strittiges Terrain ["disputed land" in the Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin] 138, 236 Stumvoll, Felix (Austrian consul for Tientsin, 1911) 131, 148 6XQ<DWVHQ Suzhou/Gansu 22 Swing Bridge (in the Austro-Hungarian concession; see also Austrian Bridge) 102–105, 114, 121, 125, 171, 183, 189, 193, 195–196, 238, 241–246, 250, 255 6]pOO.iOPiQ+XQJDULDQSULPHPLQLVWHU 6]XN\*p]D ±

Tageblatt für Nord-China (journal) 131, 152

Taku/Dagu 95, 176 Taku Road, Tianjin 176 Tang Shaoyi [T'ong Shao I] (Tientsin's Customs Daotai) 42, 65 Taussig, Alfred (perfumeries factory, Vienna) 27, 95–96 Taussig Company (Taussig-Fischer Company, Austro-Hungarian concession in Tientsin) 117, 134–135, 189, 191, 193–194 Taussig, Gottlieb (Austrian industrialist, the soap manufacturer in the Austro-Hungarian concession) 95, 117, 119, 134 Technical University of Munich (Germany) 11 Temple of the War God Guandi, Tianjin 61 Tengyue (Momein) 22 Teplitz (former German city) 221 Teschen (Silesia) 89 7LDQMLQIHQVL>2൶FHRIWKH&LUFXLW,QWHQGDQWRI Tientsin] 60 Tianjin German Relief Fund [Tientsin Hilfsaktion] 157 Tianjin Municipal Government 7, 162, 168, 176 Tianjin Museum of Modern History [Jindai Tianjin Bowuguan] 162 Tianjinwei military fortress 45 7LDQTXDQ Tientsin and Peking Times 131 Tientsin City Public Works Department 102 Tientsin Hilfsaktion [Tianjin German Relief Fund] 157 Tientsin/Tianjin Provisional Government (T.P.G.) 8, 35, 41, 55, 59, 67–68, 95 Tientsin Tramways and Electricity Company (see also Compagnie ...) 240 Tokyo Research Group on the History of Tianjin 49 Tongji chayuan [Tea Garden gate, Austro-Hungarian concession, Tientsin] 140, 142 Tramwaygesellschaft [Tramway Company, in the Austro-Hungarian concession, see also Compagnie ...] 189, 192, 194, 258 Treaty of St. Germain (signed in 1919) 9, 157 Trieste Stock Exchange 15 Triest (Trieste), Adriatic port 77, 79 Tsingtau [Chinese: Qingdao] 11, 53, 87, 157 Tsu Family, Tientsin 114 Tung Fu Chiao (bridge) 102 Tung-pu-ch'iao 58 7XWXQJ<DPHQVHDWRIWKHSURYLVLRQDO government 68 Typhoon 131, 138, 140, 183

Uferstraße [Riverside Road, in the Austro-Hungarian concession] 154, 216–217, 222, 241, 246 UNESCO World Heritage List 179 Universal Exhibition, Paris 1900 14, 17–20, 27, 44, 117 Universal Exhibition, Vienna 1873 [see Weltausstellung] University of Bristol 38 University of Vienna (Austria) 9, 22, 47–48 Urga 22 Ürge, Ignaz 31 USA 7, 16, 46, 55, 59–60, 146, 182 Vasárnapi Újság [Sunday Newspaper], Budapest 23, 44, 79–80 Verband Österreichischer Experteure [Association of Austrian Exporters] 117 Versailles Castle near Paris, France 172–173 Via Carlotto (in the Italian concession, Tientsin) 148 Via Roma (in the Italian concession, Tientsin) 148 Via Vittorio Emanuele (main street in the Italian concession, Tientsin) 131, 138, 203, 210, 231 Victoria Park [in the British concession of Tientsin] 164 Vienna 7–9, 11–14, 16–22, 27, 29–32, 35, 38, 43– 44, 47–48, 55–56, 61–62, 64, 67–69, 72–74, 77, 79, 85–89, 92–96, 99, 105, 109–113, 115–127, 131, 133, 135–140, 147–148, 159, 174, 181–184 Vienna Culinary Festival 181 Vienna Universal Exhibition 1873 (see Weltausstellung) 9Ui](QULTXH6WDQNR Waiwubu/Waiwupu [Ministry of Foreign \$൵DLUV@ Wang Zhanyuan, general from Hebei 156 War Archives [Kriegsarchiv], Vienna 48, 68, 89, 126 Warenmusterlager [Sample collection depot] 117 Watts, Edward 14, 17 Wealth Mansions, Tianjin 172–173 Weltausstellung Wien [Vienna Universal Exhibition 1873] 14, 17–20, 27, 44, 117 Wen Jiabao (China's Prime Minister between 2003 and 2013) 162 Wen Shou-Feng (co-manager of the Hotung Baugesellschaft) 109 Wiener Abendpost [Vienna Evening Post] 20, 75 Wiener Exportverein [Viennese Export Association] 117 Wiener Zeitung [Vienna Journal] 15, 20, 23, 27, 31, 44, 71, 75, 105, 109 :LO¿QJHU-RVHI&DWKROLF)DWKHU

Wilhelmstraße [Wilhelm Street, in the German concession in Tientsin] 87, 163 Winterhalder, Theodor Ritter von (ship-of-the line lieutenant) 41, 56 :RMFLN+DXSWPDQQ&KLHIR൶FHU World War (I and II) 7, 45, 47, 114, 119–120, 143, 148, 155–157, 159, 171, 176 Wudadao [see also Five Avenues Historic District in the former British concession] 168 Wuhan 118 Wuhu 23 Xiamen 15 Xinghua (Bay, Fujian) 34 Xinghua ribao (journal) 131–132 Xinglong jie 61 Xuanhua 22 Xuantong Era 131 Xu Shensi 27 <DOXZRRGHQUDIWV <DPHQ ± 138, 196, 201–202, 217–218, 222 <DPHQVWUDH><DPHQ6WUHHWLQWKH\$XVWUR Hungarian concession] 126, 201–202, 217, 222 <DQJW]H5LYHU <DQJXDQWLQJ>%XLOGLQJRIWKH6DOW Administration] 60 <DQWDL=KLIX ± <D]KRX <HQ.XDQ>6DOW,QVSHFWRUV2൶FH@ <LFKDQJ

<LKHTXDQ<LKHWXDQ<LKHWXDQPRYHPHQW 48 <0&\$EXLOGLQJ7LDQMLQ <RNRKDPD-DSDQ <XDQ.XQJ.ZDQ<LDQ6KL.DIDPLO\KRXVH Tianjin 176 <XDQ1DLNXDQQHSKHZRI<XDQ6KLNDL <XDQ6KLNDL+RXVH <XDQ6KLNDL<XDQ6KL.DL\*HQHUDO\*RYHUQRURIWKH Zhili province) 43, 67, 69, 71, 74, 92, 94, 102, 156, 168, 174, 176–177, 179, 182, 184 <XHQ7VX&KHQFRGLUHFWRURIWKH+RWXQJ Baugesellschaft) 109 Zach, Erwin Ritter von (Austrian consul for Tientsin 1908) 29, 114, 148 Zeitschrift des Österr. Ingenieurs- und Architekten-Vereins [Journal of the Austrian Society of Engineers and Architects] 89, 95 Zenta (Austrian vessel) 35 Zhangjiakou 22–23, 37 Zhang Lianfen 42 Zhang Zhenxun (Zhang Bishi) 29 Zhenjiang (Province) 22 Zhili province 15, 31, 35, 67, 152, 156 Zhongdian 22 Zhoushan 21 Zichy, Ágost Count 21–22 =LFK\-HQĘ&RXQW Zichy, József Count 21 =RQJOL<DPHQ Zuo Zongtang 30

### **Summary (in English and in Chinese)**

ഭ䱵』⭼ᱟᤷ൘аӋѫ㾱䍨᱃ᐲࡂࠪ䜘࠶ൠ ฏˈᦞᡈҹਾㆮ㖢Ⲵнᒣㅹᶑ㓖ˈ⭡ഭཆ᭯ᵳ ሩަ䘋㹼㇑⨶DŽ』⭼൘19ц㓚лॺਦࡠҼॱц㓚 кॺਦࠪ⧠൘ѝഭDŽⴞ⭼『ˈѪањ⹄ウ亶 ฏ㻛䟽ᯠᇑ㿶ˈԕ᧒ウᡁԜᖃлᡰ䉃āޘ⨳ॆā ⲴᨀᶑԦDŽ

International concessions were strictly delimited enclaves within key trading cities, ceded to and gov-HUQHG E\ IRUHLJQ SRZHUV DIWHU µXQHTXDOWUHDWLHV¶ UHsulting from military campaigns. Concessions also came into being in China, from the second half of WKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WRWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHWZHQWL-HWK7KH\DUHFXUUHQWO\EHLQJUHGLVFRYHUHGDVD¿HOG of research on the preconditions of what we today call 'globalisation'.

ཙ⍕』⭼սҾेӜьইˈѤ䘁⎧⒮DŽᆳ䲔 Ҷ㓿ᑨок⎧৺ަޡޜ⭼『䘋㹼ሩ∄ѻཆˈҏ ަᇎൠĀ⁚ӈޘ⨳ā˖ҍњഭᇦ൘↔䇮・ԓ㺘 ༴ˈवᤜҶᰕᵜˈ״ഭˈԕ৺ޝњ⅗⍢ഭᇦ઼㖾 ഭDŽ㤡ǃ⌅ǃབྷ࡙⭼『४ⲴশਢᗇࡠҶᆼழⲴ ⹄ウˈ਼ᰦᆳԜⲴᇎփṶᷦҏབྷ䜘؍࠶⮉㠣ӺDŽ ⴞˈ䘉ࠐњ』⭼४㻛ཙ⍕ᐲ᭯ᓌࡇѪާᴹĀབྷ 䜭Պ仾ᛵāⲴ᮷ॆ䚇൰DŽ㘼൘䘉⇥শਢѝˈᴹа њݳ㍐তࠐѾ㻛䚇ᘈ˖ྕसᑍഭ』⭼४DŽ

Besides constituting a famous counterpart to Shanghai and its International Settlement, the concessions of Tientsin (today's Tianjin), a city to the south-east of Beijing close to the Bohai Bay, indeed 'spanned the globe': nine nations were represented, from Japan, Russia, and six European countries to the USA. The histories of the British, French, or Ital-LDQ TXDUWHUV KDYH EHHQ UDWKHUZHOO H[SORUHG DQGWRday their physical fabrics are still visible to a remarkable extent — currently, they are even being FRPPRGL¿HG E\WKH7LDQMLQ0XQLFLSDO\*RYHUQPHQW as a cultural heritage site endowed with 'cosmopoli-WDQ ÀDLU¶² ZKHUHDV RQH HOHPHQW KDV DOPRVW IDOOHQ into oblivion: *the Austro-Hungarian concession*.

ᵜҖⲴสᵜⴞḷণѪປ㺕䘉а⹄ウオⲭDŽᵜ Җᱟㅜа䜘ሩཙ⍕ྕसᑍഭ』⭼Ҿ̢ ᒤ䰤ᆈ㔝Ⲵ䜭ᐲਢ઼ᔪㆁਢ䘋㹼Ⲵ䈝ຳॆ⹄ ウˈሶ࡙↔⭘ᵚ㻛цӪᡰ⸕ᲃⲴ᮷ᆇ઼മ⡷ẓ Ṹˈሶަᔪㆁ䚇䊼оӺཙᖃൠⲴ᮷ॆ䚇ӗъ䘋㹼 ޣ㚄ˈԕᖃӺⲴ㿶䀂䘋㹼⹄ウDŽޘҖ㚊❖Ҿྕस ᑍഭ』⭼ˈ਼ᰦҶєњ䜘࠶˖ሬ䇪䜘࠶Ѫ䈫 㘵ᾲᤜӻ㓽Ҷ㠚ॱҍц㓚ࡍྕൠ࡙˄ਾᵏҏवᤜ स⢉࡙˅оѝഭӔᖰ䗷〻ѝ䟷ਆ䗷Ⲵ"ཊ䟽䚃䐟" ˈަᴰ㓸㠤֯ᒤਾཙ⍕』⭼Ⲵާփ䇮・˗㘼

䱴ᖅࡉᆼᮤ᭦ᖅҶሩཙ⍕䘋㹼শਢ⹄ウⲴѫ㾱а ᮷⥞˄䈖㿱л᮷˅DŽ

)LOOLQJ WKLV VFLHQWL¿F JDS LV WKH RYHUDOO JRDO RI this book. The urban and architectural history of Tientsin's Austro-Hungarian concession, which existed between 1901 and 1917, will be contextualised KHUH IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH PDNLQJ XVH RI KLWKHUWR XQknown archival material, both written and visual, while its last physical remains will be set in relation with today's local heritage industry from a present-day perspective. While the episode of the Austro-Hungarian concession stands at the centre of this book, it is framed by two additional sections: an introduction provides the reader with a historical overview of the 'many roads' taken by Austrian (and later also Hungarian) relations with China, from the early nineteenth century onwards, that ultimately led to the concrete concession project in Tientsin after 1900. In the appendix, the central primary source on which this historical analysis of Tientsin is based (see below), has been reproduced in full.

クᨂᵜҖ䇘䇪Ⲵањѫ仈ࡉᱟӔ㓷Ⲵᛆ䇪DŽ

аᯩ䶒ˈᡁԜਟሏ㿹ࠪˈሩѝഭ䍨᱃ਓየ』 ⭼˄ᆈ㔝Ҿॱҍц㓚ޝॱᒤԓ㠣Ҽॱц㓚ഋॱᒤ ԓ˅Ⲵ⹄ウᡀѪ㬜ࣳਁኅⲴᆖᵟޤ䏓⛩DŽ㘼↔ᆖ ᵟ䎻ੁнӵ⎹৺Ҷሩഭ䱵䰤᭯⋫ǃཆӔ઼˄оഭ 䱵䍨᱃ᴹޣⲴ˅㓿⍾ޣ㌫㖁Ⲵ⹄ウˈ਼ᰦҏ⏥ⴆ Ҷሩ』⭼४Ⲵสᔪǃᐲᔰਁ઼ᔪㆁ䘋㹼㿴ࡂǃ ᇎᯭ઼㇑᧗ᡰᗵ䴰Ⲵ⢙⍱ǃᢰᵟǃ䇮༷DŽ㘼к䘠 ᯩ䶒ˈ㔃ਸࡠҼॱц㓚ࡍⲴ』⭼䘉аᗞ㿲ᔪࡦ ѝˈᑨ㻛㿶ѪĀޘ⨳ॆāüü䘉а䊑ᖱᙗ㚷 Ҿ2000ᒤǃ㾶ⴆޘ⨳ǃ㓥⁚Ӕ㓷Ⲵ༽ᵲ䗷〻üü Ⲵྐสᙗഐ㍐DŽ

A theme running through the main contribution of this book has been that of paradoxical constellations.

2Q WKH RQH KDQG D YHULWDEOH ERRP LQ VFLHQWL¿F interest for the history of treaty port concessions in China (which lasted from the 1860s to the 1940s) could be detected. This interest does not only concern research in the political, diplomatic, and ('world trade'-related) economic networks of international collaboration, but also in the logistics, tech-QLTXHV DQG LQVWUXPHQWV WKDW ZHUH UHTXLUHG WR SODQ implement, and control the infrastructural, urban, and architectural development of concession systems. All these aspects together, in their micro set-up in concessions around 1900, are often viewed as important founding factors of those entangled processes spanning the world that since the symbolic threshold of 2000 have often been summed up as 'globalisation'.

ᵜҖሩѝഭᴰިරⲴ』⭼ཙ⍕——ަ䳶㔃Ҷ ц⭼⡸മкⲴᰕ״3/5㖾ҍњഭᇦ——Ⲵশਢ৺ަ ਾцⲴ⢙䍘ਈ䗱䘋㹼Ҷᆖᵟᡀ᷌㔬䘠DŽ↔ཆˈ䈕 Җ䘈ኅ⧠Ҷа⇥ѽⴻ䎧ᶕ亷ᴹᛆ䇪Ⲵਈ䗱䗷〻˖ ཙ⍕䘉⇥༷ਇ䈏⯵Ⲵশਢ╄ਈᡀҶަݹ䖹Ⲵ᮷ॆ 䚇ӗDŽቭ㇑ѝഭশਢᆖᇦԜᰗᱟ⹄ウཆഭ࣯ 㔏⋫䘉аশਢㇷㄐⲴ〟ᶱᣵ㘵ˈаӋᇼᴹᯠᙍ Ⲵ᭯ᇒ઼ᔰਁ୶Ԝࣚࡉቍ䈅ሶཙ⍕䛓ݵ┑ᑍഭ ѫѹץ⮕઼㙫䗡ᙗ᧐ཪⲴ』⭼ਢˈ᭩߉ᡀ↓䶒ᙗ Ⲵǃ"ਟԕ㻛㔗઼ᔦ㔝"ⲴǃޣҾ⧠ԓॆǃ䜭ᐲ ॆǃഭᇦਸ઼ཊ䗩৻䈺Ⲵ㜌࡙᭵һDŽ䘉а᭩ ߉ˈሶᴮ㓿ަ価ਇ䈏⯵Ⲵ䗷৫ˈ㶽ޕҶཙ⍕㠚ᡁ ᇊսҾᵚᶕഭ䱵ᙗ䜭ᐲⲴ䘭≲ѝDŽ

While mapping out the current status of knowledge about the history and physical afterlife of Tientsin, China's most relevant concession (which assembled nine foreign nations from all over the globe, from Japan and Russia to Europe and the USA), this publication has uncovered a seemingly paradoxical transformative moment: a shift *from Tientsin's contested history to Tianjin's glorious heritage*. Although Chinese historians continue to take an active part in investigating this foreign-ruled chapter in their 'own' country's recent past, inventive municipal politicians and developers are trying hard to reformulate Tientsin's concession legacy, namely, pan-imperialistic aggression and humiliating exploitation, into a positive, 'to-be-inherited-and-tobe-continued' success story of modernisation, cosmopolitanism, international cooperation and, even, multilateral friendship. This reinvention of a once FRQWHVWHG SDVWWKXV ¿WVLQZLWK7LDQMLQ¶V VHOIEUDQGing ambitions of the present as a global city for the future.

൘䘉⇥䟽བྷⲴশਢ᭩߉ѝˈᴮ㓿ᴰᇼᴹᖡ૽ Ⲵ⌅ഭǃ㤡ഭ઼བྷ࡙⭼『४Ⲵ䜭ᐲ઼ᔪㆁᶴ 䙐䜭㻛䙀↕᭩䙐ᡀҶ᮷ॆ䚇ӗˈެᇩ⵰༽Ⲵਔ 䘩ǃᯠᔪⲴᯠᔿཆ䊼઼䟽ᯠᐳተⲴ䜭ᐲオ䰤DŽަ ᮤփⲴṶᷦᶴᔪԕሩশਢкࡇᕪⲴപᇊ᮷ॆঠ䊑 Ѫѫ仈ˈ⭊㠣䲿⵰䘉Ӌ᮷ॆঠ䊑нᯝᕪॆˈӗ⭏ Ҷаԕޘ⨳ॆѪѫ仈Ⲵޜഝ≋തDŽ

In this great reworking of history, the urban and architectural fabric of the once most impactful concessions of France, Great Britain, and Italy is gradually being turned into a cultural heritage hybrid of restored original monuments, in-style reconstructed façades, and reinvented urban spaces. With the fabric being 'themed' after, or even enhanced with the enduring cultural stereotypes of these former international powers, the overall result may be characterised as a global theme park atmosphere.

ਖаᯩ䶒ˈྕसᑍഭ』⭼ˈѪ˄к䘠শਢ ѝⲴ˅ᗞሿᡀ࠶ˈ㠣Ӻӽ㻛ᧂ䲔൘ѝഭ˄ཙ⍕˅ 』⭼ਢ䘉аޘ⹄⨳ウ䎻઼࣯䜭ᐲᔪㆁ䚇ӗॆ㛼ਾ Ⲵᵜൠ㓿䬰䘉ৼੁ䗷〻ѻཆDŽᵜҖⲴሬ䇪䜘࠶䱀 䘠Ҷйњѫ㾱ഐˈ䀓䟺䘉а』⭼࣯Ⲵশਢᙗ 㕪ᑝԕ৺⹄ウⴢ४DŽ䘉йᶑഐ䙀а㻛㖞Ҿޘ⨳ ॆ䙫䗁䈝ຳѝDŽ

On the other hand, one small element — the concession of Austria-Hungary — had, so far, been left out of this dual process: the global trend to research &KLQD¶V 7LDQMLQ¶V FRQFHVVLRQ KLVWRU\ DQGWKHORFDO agency behind the 'heritagisation' of urban and architectural remains. In the introduction to this contri-EXWLRQWKUHHPDMRU UHDVRQV IRUWKLV JUDQG KLVWRULFDO DEVHQFH DQG VFLHQWL¿F QHJOHFW RI RQH &RQFHVVLRQ Power were formulated and each one was set in relation to a very global logic.

俆ݸˈྕसᑍഭ』⭼൘1902㠣1917ᒤ䘀㩕ཡ 䍕DŽྲӺⴻᶕˈޘ⨳઼ᵜൠⲴ⸋㓐㕐ˈሬ㠤Ҷ ᐳᯟ๑⦻ᵍሩҾ⇆≁ѫѹ/ᑍഭѫѹⲴ"䎠ੁޘ ⨳"䇑ࡂ˄䈖㿱Georg LehnerⲴሬ䇪˅᭯⋫к㓿傼 н䏣ˈ㓿⍾к㕪ѿ✝ᛵˈ਼ᰦᇎ䱵䰞仈৸᧕ 䑥㘼㠣˄ֻྲˈѝഭት≁Ⲵ൏ൠᖱ⭘ˈ䍴ᵜ઼ᣅ 䍴फ़ѿˈส䇮ᯭкⲴสᵜ㓿傼н䏣˅DŽ䘉ҏ ણ⵰ˈሩ∄ަԆ㜭䘋㹼ᴤᴹ᭸ᔪ䇮Ⲵ』⭼࣯ˈ ྕस』ُᇎ䱵кਚᆼᡀҶቁ䟿Ⲵ䜭ᐲสᔪ䇮DŽ ഐ↔ˈྕसᑍഭ䴦ᱏⲴᔪㆁ䚇൰൘᧕л৫Ⲵॺњ ц㓚㻛Ӫ䚇ᘈҏн䏣ѪཷDŽ䴚к䵌Ⲵᱟˈཙ⍕ 』⭼ᑖᴹⲴ㊫ᑍഭѫѹⲴশਢˈ൘˄ਾ˅∋⌭ь ᰦԓᱟѝഭᇒ㿲ᆖᵟ⹄ウⲴ⾱४DŽ䘉аᛵᖒаⴤ ᤱ㔝ࡠ1990ᒤԓˈণׯ䛓ᰦഭཆ㘳ሏ亩ⴞҏ㻛ѕ Ṭ䲀ࡦDŽ

First, the implementation of the Austro-Hungarian concession between 1902 and 1917 was a failure. Owing to what we called an entangled global-local FLUFXPVWDQFH WKH +DEVEXUJV¶ LQVX൶FLHQW SROLWLFDO experience with, and economic disinterest for any FRORQLDOLPSHULDOLVW µJRLQJ JOREDO¶ SURMHFWV VHH WKH introduction by Georg Lehner) unfortunately overlapped with too many problems on the ground (expropriation of Chinese residents, no funds or investment, poor infrastructural know-how). This means WKDW LQ FRPSDULVRQ WR PRUH H൶FLHQW EXLOGLQJ SUR MHFWV E\ RWKHU&RQFHVVLRQ 3RZHUV YHU\OLWWOH XUEDQ architectural fabric was *de facto* completed, and it is hardly surprising that these sparse physical reminders of Austria-Hungary easily fell into oblivion for the next half-century — all the more so given that Tientsin's concession *qua* imperialist history was a (post-)Maoist taboo for unbiased Chinese research until the 1990s, a time when foreign *in-situ* investigations were also restricted.

㘼ሬ㠤ྕसᑍഭ』⭼䘉⇥᭵һ㠣ӺᰐӪ⸕ᲃ ⲴㅜҼ⛩ഐҏ൘Җѝ㻛⛩᰾˖൘Ӿѝഭ䈳എྕ ൠ࡙Ⲵ䗷〻ѝˈ亶һ᮷ᆇᶀᯉ䭉䈟ൠоަᖡۿ䍴 ᯉ࠶ˈ㠤֯䜘࠶ẓṸ䍴ᯉ"䚇ཡҾ㘫䈁ѝ"DŽ㘼 䜘࠶䍴ᯉⲴнਟ࡙ˈ⭘ণˈӵᴹ᮷ᆇ䙊ؑਟ⭘㘼 ᓄⲴ㔈മǃ㥹は઼➗⡷ᮓ֊ˈަਾ᷌ቡᱟˈᗧ ഭ઼ྕൠ࡙20ц㓚50ᒤԓਾ䘋㹼Ⲵབྷ䜘࠶⹄ウӵ 㚊❖Ҿཙ⍕᭯⋫઼ཆӔਢˈ㘼ᰐ⌅⎹৺ྕसᑍഭ 』⭼Ⲵ䜭ᐲᔪㆁ㛼ᲟDŽ䘉Ӌ⹄ウᶀᯉѫ㾱ᇩ䓛Ҿ Ѡᇼতᵚ㻛ਁ㺘Ⲵঊ༛䇪᮷ѝDŽ㘼ᵜҖ俆⅑ԕ㤡 䈝ሶަᙫ㔃DŽ

A second reason for the hitherto untold story of the Austro-Hungarian concession was also discovered: archival sources were partially 'lost in translation' during their repatriation from China back to Austria, when written consular material was erroneously separated from its visual attachments. As a FRQVHTXHQFH RI WKLV SDUWLDO XQDYDLODELOLW\ RI PDWHrial, whereby only written correspondence was at hand whereas plans, sketches, and photographs had gone astray, German/Austrian research since the 1950s has, for the most part, dealt with Tientsin's political and diplomatic history, while the urban architectural context of the Austro-Hungarian concession has never been examined. Primarily hidden in rich, but unpublished PhD theses, this research mate-ULDOLVVXPPDULVHGKHUHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQ(QJOLVK

ަйˈᇼᴹᛆ䇪Ⲵᱟˈᐳᯟ๑⦻ᵍ⸝ᲲⲴ 』⭼䘀ࣘ⧠൘Ӻѝഭ؍⮉лⲴ䛓Ӌቁ䟿Ⲵ䜭ᐲᶴ 䙐઼ᔪㆁ䚇൰ˈ⭡Ҿк᮷ᡰ䘠Ⲵ䚇ӗࡦ䙐䘀ࣘⲴ ⭘㘼㔗㔝㻛ץ㲰DŽ

Third, we argued that paradoxically the small amount of urban fabric and architectural remains of the Habsburgs' short campaign that still exist in China are being further eroded owing to, precisely, the above-mentioned heritage-making at play.

㘼ᡁԜᨀࠪⲴ"Ӿཙ⍕Ⲵশਢࡠཙ⍕Ⲵ䚇ӗ"Ⲵ ╄ਈ䗷〻ˈᔪᶴ൘ৼ䟽᧒䇘к˖a) ൘1901—1917 ᒤ䰤ྕसᑍഭཙ⍕』⭼䘉⇥⸝ᲲⲴ䜭ᐲॆᔪㆁਢ ⹄ウѝˈᵜ⹄ウ俆⅑㺕喀Ҷ䛓ඇỖሀԕ≲Ⲵ㕪ཡ മ˗ b) 䈕Җሶ䘉а』⭼ⲴশਢṶᷦ㖞Ҿᖃ 㓿⍾儈䙏ਁኅⲴ"ഭ䱵ཙ⍕" Ⲵ"䚇ӗॆ"䈝ຳлDŽ

What we called a process *from Tientsin's history to Tianjin's heritage* was structured in a two-fold in-TXLU\DWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQSURYLGHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPH LQVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKWKHPXFKGHVLUHGPLVVLQJSX] zle piece in the short urban architectural history of the Austro-Hungarian concession between 1901 and 1917 in Tientsin; and b) it situated its historical fabric within the current 'heritagisation' of the Chinese economic boom city 'global Tianjin'.

ᵜ⹄ウⲴㅜа↕ˈᱟ䇴ՠྕൠ࡙മҖ侶઼ẓ Ṹ侶Ⲵ㌫㔏䍴ᯉˈवᤜࠪ⡸઼ᵚࠪ⡸ⲴҖ߉ᶀ ᯉˈҏवᤜҶൠമ➗⡷ㅹ㿶㿹ᶀᯉˈԕᵏሩਜ਼㋺ нⲴྕस』⭼Ⲵ亩ഐᆀ䈝ຳॆDŽާփवᤜ˖ ᖃᰦᇎ䱵᭯⋫ተ࣯˄Ӿ1901—1902ᒤⲴ↖㻵ঐ亶 ઼нᒣㅹᶑ㓖ˈࡠ1917ᒤⲴᣅ䱽઼〫Ӕ˅˗ྕस ᵜഭ⑨〫нᇊⲴჂփᣕ䚃˄Ӿ✝⛸Ⲵ啃੩ࡠ╛ˈ ⭫⡸ㆰॆ㘼ཨᕐⲴᢩ䇴˅ˈቔަሩ∄स⢉઼࡙ྕ ൠ࡙9⭼『শ㘵Ⲵ㿱䰫˗ྕसᯩ䶒ᡰᢞ╄Ⲵ䀂㢢 ˄儈ቊⲴ亶һˈнݹᖙⲴ㘵ˈᛢᙗ㕪ᑝⲴ ᖃൠᣅ䍴㘵˅ԕ৺ᵜൠӪሩᓄⲴ䀂㢢˄वᤜ ᶕ৲㿲Ⲵǃ؍ᴹᑍഭ㦓㘰Ⲵᙫ⨶བྷ㠓㺱цࠟˈҏ वᤜѝഭйзཊ䎧ѹ㘵˅˗ަ⢙䍴䘀䗃ᯩ䶒䙷ࡠ Ⲵᡈ˄Ӿઘ䗩⋣⍱⸱ཤⲴപˈࡠнᗇӪᗳⲴ 䗱ඏˈሶ7000ཊᓗඏໃ䗱ࠪᐲѝᗳ˅˗ᴰਾ䘈व ᤜҶᵪᶴ઼⌅ᖻⲴ䇮・˄Ӿᔪㆁޜਨᶑֻࡠᖃൠ Ⲵ〾᭦᭯ㆆˈ䘈⎹৺᳤ᖱ㕤˅DŽ

)RU WKH ¿UVW ZRUNLQJ VWHS D FRKHUHQW VHW RI sources from Austrian libraries and archives, both written (published and unpublished) and visual (cartographic and photographic) was evaluated to con-WH[WXDOLVH WKH GL൵HUHQW IDFWRUV RI WKH DPELYDOHQW Austro-Hungarian concession project: its political circumstances on the ground (from military occupa-WLRQ DQG XQHTXDO FRQWUDFW LQ ± WR VXUUHQGHU and handover in 1917); its ambivalent press coverage back home (from great fanfare to cartoonish cri-WLTXH FRPSDUHG WR H\HZLWQHVV UHSRUWV IURP +XQgarian and Austrian visitors to the concession; its main Austro-Hungarian actors (from honourable consuls to dubious contractors and tragically absent local investors) and their local counterparts (from YLVLWLQJ\*HQHUDO\*RYHUQRU<XDQ6KLNDLLQKLVLPSHrial grandeur to some 30.000 resisting Chinese residents); its logistical challenges (from peripheral ULYHUTXD\FRQVROLGDWLRQVWRWKHXQSRSXODUUHORFDWLRQ RIJUDYHVRXWRIWKHFRUH]RQHDQG¿QDOO\LWV institutional/legal set-up (from statutes of a construction company to local taxation and even violent expropriation).

ᴰ䟽㾱ⲴᱟˈᵜҖӻ㓽䇘䇪Ҷаᢩᡰᵚ⸕ Ⲵǃ亷Ѫ༞㿲Ⲵа᮷⥞˄ޘ᮷䱴Ҿ䱴ᖅ˅DŽ䘉 ᢩ᮷⥞ਟԕഎⓟࡠ1911ᒤᐖਣˈवᤜҶ㔈∄ֻ ቪമ㓨ˈаᵜ㻵ᴹ115亥唁ⲭ⡷Ⲵ⺜Ⳟˈ ཆ15亥ᢃᆇᵪᢃঠⲴӻ㓽䈤᰾DŽᮤ྇᮷⥞㻛⭘ 㿶㿹઼オ䰤ˈਟሶྕस』⭼㠚㠣㓸њ ਁኅ䱦⇥䘋㹼䟽ᯠ䈝ຳॆ˖ަवᤜҶ俆ݸਁ⭏ǃ ҏᱟᴰѪ䟽㾱ⲴḷᘇᔪㆁⲴᔪ・ˈণ൘ཆӔкᴹ ḷᘇѹⲴ亶һབྷᾬ઼൘ࡦ䙐ъкᴹਁ⭘Ⲵ ᔪㆁ˄ᯠྕൠ࡙䫱ẕˈᇎ䱵кᱟ䜘࠶➗ᩜҶㅜ йᯩ˅ˈҏवᤜҶᐲ㿴ࡂⲴཊቍ䈅˄ᔪ・а њᯠⲴǃ"ޘڕⲴ"䐟㺘ˈ㾶ⴆ൘ѝഭᵜ൏䐟䶒 кˈԕᵏሶ』⭼઼』⭼ཆⲴ≥ǃ⭥઼ޡޜ䫱 䖘Ӕ䙊䘎᧕䎧ᶕ˅

\$ERYH DOO IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH D VR IDU XQNQRZQ 'spectacular' primary source was introduced and discussed (and published in full length in the Appendix). Going back to *c.*1911, it comprised a handdrawn scaled plan and a bound album of 115 black-DQGZKLWH SKRWRJUDSKV WRJHWKHU ZLWK D ¿IWHHQSDJH typewritten description. The entire set was used as a visual and spatial guide to re-contextualise the developmental stages of the Austro-Hungarian concession from its beginning to its end: from establishing WKH¿UVWDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWDUFKLWHFWXUDOPDUNHUVRI diplomatic presence (the consulate buildings) and of an 'engineered' civilising mission (the new 'Austrian' iron swing bridge, *de facto* a project by various national representations) to greater urban planning H൵RUWVHVWDEOLVKLQJDQHZµUDWLRQDO¶WH[WXUHRYHUWKH pre-existing local Chinese lane system, connecting the concessions to the cross-concession system of water supply, electricity, and public tramway).

䈊❦ˈ➗⡷нӵ䇠ᖅ⵰ᆼᐕⲴᯠᔪㆁ઼"ӄ⁚ ӄ㓥"Ⲵᐲ䐟㖁DŽԆԜ䘈⽪Ҷ൘』⭼ݹ勌Ⲵ ཆ㺘лᖃԔӪнᆹⲴ⧠ᇎ˖а⡷㻛䗱〫Ⲵඏ ൠˈаӋ㻛ᖱ⭘઼ᓏᔳⲴᔪㆁˈഐѪ㕪ቁ˄ഭ 䱵˅ᣅ䍴㘵㘼オ㖞Ⲵ൏ൠˈ⽮Պ䱦ቲⲴ䳄ˈԕ ৺ᴰ㌏㌅Ⲵа⛩ˈ㛞㜿Ⲵܫٿሿ䚃ˈ1911ᒤ8ᴸ 30ਧ⭡ਠ仾ᕅਁⲴ⍚≤⚮ᇣѝˈѝഭᵜൠት≁ਚ 㜭Ⲵⴻ⵰ઘതⲴབྷ⡷⊑≤㘼ᰐ㜭ᰐˈᱮ ❦ˈ䘉䟼ᒦ⋑ᴹᔪᡀањᴹ᭸Ⲵᧂ≤㌫㔏DŽ1911 ᒤਾ䘉ᢩ⤜аᰐҼⲴᖡۿẓṸኅ⽪ᡁԜˈᡁ Ԝᗵ享Ӿᮤփশਢ䀂ᓖˈ ᢺྕसᑍഭ』⭼ˈ䘉а ཙ⍕ᐲⲴ"ഭ䱵"ᔪࡦˈѪᑍഭѫѹᔿۢធⲴ ᐕ〻ǃѪањཡ䍕ᐕ〻ᶕ䟽ᯠᇑ㿶DŽ

However, the photographs not only documented WKHFRPSOHWHGIHZEXLOGLQJVDQGXUEDQJULGRI¿YH E\¿YH VWUHHWVWKH\ UHYHDOHG ULJKW µEHKLQGWKH IHZ shining façades' of the concession, a rather disturbing reality: one of relocated Chinese graves, several expropriated and abandoned buildings, empty plots owing to the lack of (inter)national investors, social segregation and, worst of all, dirty backstreets where local Chinese inhabitants stand around giant pools of ZDVWHZDWHUKHOSOHVVGXULQJWKHÀRRGLQJFDWDVWURSKH brought about by a typhoon on 30th August 1911 — FOHDUO\DQH൵HFWLYHGUDLQDJHV\VWHPZDVQHYHUVXF-FHVVIXOO\ LQVWDOOHG 7KHVH XQLTXH YLVXDO GRFXPHQWV created around 1911 reveal that the Austro-Hungarian concession, as part of the 'inter-national' set-up in Tientsin, must be evaluated from an overall historical perspective as a project of imperialistic hubris and as a failure.

Ӿᴤᒯ⌋Ⲵᾲᘥкˈ䘉аਁ⧠֯ᡁԜਟԕሩ ᆿབྷਉһ䘋㹼䈳ᮤˈ䘉ᆿབྷਉһवᤜཙ⍕ᤕᴹᡀ 㔙ᯀ❦Ⲵഭ䱵』⭼㖁㔌ˈԕ৺』⭼Ѫⴋᶱаᰦ Ⲵ䈅傼ˈѪ㖾ྭⲴᵚᶕᨀҶ㓿ѵн㺠Ⲵ䚇ӗDŽ ሩᰐ䇪Ӿশਢ䘈ᱟӾ᮷ॆкˈ䘉Ӌᆿབྷਉһ䜭ཚ 䗷ᇩ᱃㻛ᴢ䀓DŽ൘ሩһᇎ䘋㹼ᴤ㓶ᗞⲴ䀓䈫䗷〻 ѝˈᡁԜਁ⧠ˈ൘ཙ⍕』⭼४ˈᵚᴮྲ傫ཙ⍕亶 һHugo Schumpeter൘1915ᒤᡰ䀰ˈ䙊䗷"ᕪࡦⲴ ⧠ԓॆ"ⵏ↓䇮・ᯠⲴḷ߶ˈӖᵚᇎ⧠"ছ⭏⧠ԓ ॆ"ˈ⭊㠣ᵚᴹ"䶙ᯠ"˄ᦞᵜ⹄ウⲴ㺘䘠˗৲ 㿱Rogaski 2000 ઼2004, Rogaski ઼6LQJDUDYpORX 2019˅DŽཙ⍕Ѫ』⭼Ⲵশਢҏн㜭ㆰঅൠ㻛" ᔰਁ"ᡆ㻛ཨབྷˈᶕ᭟ཙ⍕˄ѳ㠣ѝഭ˅䛓ݵ ┑䟾ᗳ㘼䬪䱸Ⲵޘ⧠⨳ԓॆ䚃䐟DŽ

)URP D EURDGHU FRQFHSWXDO YLHZSRLQW WKLV ¿QGing enables us to tweak the all too easily appropriated master narrative — historically as well as currently — about a once successful international concession network in Tientsin and its enduring legacy of a once powerful laboratory for a promising future. In a more nuanced reading of the facts, neither did Tientsin in the concession era exclusively set new standards through "enforced modernisation" (as Austria-Hungary's consul for Tientsin, Hugo Schumpeter claimed in 1915) or lead to "hygienic modernity" or even to a "revolution" (as current research is framing it, cf. Rogaski 2000 and 2004 with 6LQJDUDYpORX1RUVKRXOG7LHQWVLQ¶VKLVWRU\DV a concession be allowed to be easily exploited and overvalued as a supporting element for Tianjin's (and China's) over-ambitiously staged path into global modernity today.

㘼䘉ᴰਾⲴањᯩ䶒ˈণሶཙ⍕1900ᒤਾⲴ শਢ䙀↕᭩㕆ᡀཙ⍕2000ᒤਾⲴ䚇ӗˈࡉᱟᵜҖ ⹄ウⲴㅜҼ䜘࠶ᇩDŽᰗཙ⍕઼⧠ԓཙ⍕Ⲵ㚄 㔃ˈਁ⭏൘ѝഭ䛓ԔӪ䇦Ⲵ䖜ර䘉а䈝ຳѝ˖ Ӿ˄ਾ˅∋⌭ьᰦԓ˄ⴤࡠҼॱц㓚ҍॱᒤԓ˅ ⽮Պѫѹ䇶ᖒᘱሩҾк⎧ཙ⍕䘉Ѫᑍഭѫ ѹ᧐ཪ઼≁᯿㙫䗡ѻᡰⲴഭ䱵』⭼Ⲵ䍜վˈࡠԕ ᐲ൪ѪሬੁⲴ䇶ᖒᘱˈ൘2000ᒤԕਾ൘䘁Ѿ䍴 ᵜѫѹⲴԱࡂѝሶ䘉Ӌ』⭼ॷ㓗Ѫഭ䱵ਸˈ⭊ 㠣ᱟӂѪ৻䈺ⲴᇼᴹࡋⲴ䈅傼ൠDŽ

It is this last facet of the gradual appropriation of *Tientsin's history* after 1900 as *Tianjin's heritage* after 2000 that stood at the centre of the second part of this contribution. The Tientsin-Tianjin nexus was contextualised within China's astonishing transformation from a (late) Maoist socialist ideology (until the 1990s) that downgraded previous international concessions like Shanghai or Tientsin as sites of imperialistic exploitation and national humiliation to a market-oriented ideology that upgraded these concessions, now in the context of almost capitalistic planning schemes (in the 2000s), to the status of once innovative test sites of international cooperation and, even, mutual friendship.

൘䘉а䈝ຳлˈཙ⍕Ѫ』⭼Ⲵ䗷৫ˈ㻛ᇼ ᴹࡋ䙐ᙗⲴᐲ᭯ᇈઈ઼ᔰਁ୶䟽ᯠ䍻ҸҶ"ᖵԕ 㔗"Ⲵഭ䱵ѫѹ䚇ӗⲴણˈԆԜ䭷ᤕᴹ㓖 аॳӄⲮзӪਓⲴ䎵㓗ᐲཙ⍕ˈ൘ੁޘ⨳ᢙኅ 䗷〻ѝⲴ䳴ᗳ༞ᘇн䀰㘼௫DŽ㘼൘ᯠ"᮷ॆ䚇ӗ փࡦ"лˈн਼Ⲵ⭼『४⧠Ӻ䜭㻛ᖃ"ਁኅѻ ൠ"㻛㌫㔏ൠ"䟽ᯠ䍻Ҹˈ䟽ᯠ◰⍫ˈ䟽ᯠ⧠" DŽ㘼㤡⌅』⭼ⲴṸֻ⹄ウᐢ㓿ᖸྭⲴ⧠Ҷ 䘉а䗷〻DŽ❦㘼ˈབྷ࡙Ⲵ䛫ትˈྕसᑍഭ』 ⭼ˈ㠣Ӻতᵚ㻛㬜ࣳਁኅⲴ᮷ॆ䚇ӗ⹄ウ亶ฏᡰ वᤜDŽ

In this context, Tientsin's past as a concession was rediscovered as a 'to-be-inherited-and-continued' legacy of cosmopolitanism by inventive municipal administrators and developers of the current 7LDQMLQ PHJDFLW\ RI VRPH ¿IWHHQ PLOOLRQ SHRSOH² with its outspoken ambition of global outreach. Under the new 'cultural heritage regime', diverse former concession areas are now being systematically 're-discovered, re-activated and re-presented' as sites of progress: well-researched case studies of this process already cover the former British, French, and Italian concessions. However, the current fate of Italy's former neighbour, Austria-Hungary's concession, has not been covered thoroughly yet by the ex-SDQGLQJ¿HOGRIFXOWXUDOKHULWDJHVWXGLHV

䘉аᆖᵟオ㕪ᱟ⭡к᮷ᡰ䘠Ⲵশਢ䍴ᯉⲴ㕪 ཡᡰሬ㠤Ⲵˈ㘼ᵜҖࡉሶаᢩ㻛䟽ᯠਁ⧠Ⲵ㿶㿹 а᮷⥞Ѫ∄䖳⹄ウⲴ㛼ᲟˈሶѻѪᵜҖ 㘵൘2018ᒤˈ』⭼ᖂ䘈ѝഭⲴࠐⲮᒤਾˈ䘋㹼മ ⡷ᔿ⑨㿸ⲴDŽ㘼สҾ䘉ᢩ㿶㿹䇱ᦞ઼৲➗ˈ ᡁԜሩྕसᑍഭⲴ䜭ᐲ઼ᔪㆁ䚇ӗ俆⅑䘋㹼Ҷ䳶 ؍ᣔˈᚒ༽ˈ䟽ᔪ઼䟽ᯠࡋоаփⲴमंDŽ

\*LYHQWKDW VXFK D VFLHQWL¿FODFXQDLV GXHWRWKH above-mentioned lack of historical data, the present publication made use of a rediscovered set of visual primary sources (a plan, description, and 115 photographs of the Austro-Hungarian concession from *c*.1911) as a comparative backdrop and guide for a photographic visit by the writing author in 2018 some hundred years after the concession was handed over back to China. What was mapped out for the ¿UVW WLPH RQ WKH EDVLV RI WKLV YLVXDO HYLGHQFH DQG comparison can be summarised as a mixture of conservation, restoration, reconstruction, and reinvention of Austria-Hungary's urban and architectural legacy.

䘉ᇎփ㓚ᘥ⢙Ⲵ㤳തᖸᒯ˖ᴹⲴᱟ䘋㹼Ҷ 䜘؞࠶༼ᡆപⲴṶᷦˈᴹⲴࡉᱟ䘋㹼Ҷ䜘 ࠶᭩䙐ᒦྕൠ࡙ᯠᔿṧ˄∄ྲྕൠ࡙䫱ẕ ઼亶һ侶ᔪㆁ˅ˈ䘈ᴹⲴᱟ⁑රཆ㺘ᰗᔿ㓚 ᘥᙗ㻵侠˄䘁ᵏаḻޜሃᮤփ⁑ԯྕൠ࡙㩘ቄީ ๑ᯠᮉᮉา˅ˈަ㩭Ҿ1949ᒤޡӗѫѹՏབྷ䀓᭮ 㓚ᘥ⻁Ⲵᯱ䗩˄ṩᦞަ䚇൰ൠ䱴䘁Ⲵᓅᓗ仈䇠ˈ 䈕⻁"Ѫ㓚ᘥᒣ⍕ᡈᖩҾ1948ᒤࣘᐕ"˅DŽ䘉њн བྷⲴ"ᔪㆁ㗔"Ӻཙᩝ䝽ҶᯠⲴ⧟ຳˈަѝᴹ ᯠᔪᡀⲴ"ྕൠ࡙ᔿ"Ⲵ⋣የ仾Ჟ४ˈᴹᐘབྷ㘼 ᒣᮤⲴ㻵侠仾ṬⲴ䬦㹼઼ޜབྷᾬ᷇・DŽ

Physical mementos span a wide range: from partly restored/enhanced original fabric and/or partially remodelled in-style additions *à l'Autrichienne* (the 'Austrian Bridge' and the former consulate building) to mock-up façades with old-style com-PHPRUDWLYHJDUQLVKDUHFHQWÀDWUHSOLFDRIDZKROH Protestant church from Salzburg, Austria) next to a new memorial for the glorious 1949 Communist Liberation which, according to the attached com-PHPRUDWLYH SODTXH ³VWDUWHG LQ ZLWK WKH %HLjing & Tianjin Liberation Battle" in the direct vicinities of the site. This small 'original ensemble' is today accompanied by a scenario involving a newly reinvented 'Austrian Style Riverfront', which is IUDPHGE\JLDQWÀDWDQGLQVW\OHGHFRUDWHGEDQNDQG R൶FHEXLOGLQJV

㘼⹄ウ↔䱦⇥བྷ䜭ᐲ༽ޤˈަѝⲴањ❖⛩ ᱟ㺱цࠟˈ䘉њݵ┑ҹ䇞Ⲵߋ᭯ᓌ俆㝁઼᱉㣡а ⧠Ⲵᑍഭⲷᑍˈ൘ᵜ⹄ウѝ㻛䀓䈫Ѫаս᮷ॆ᧞ ᇒDŽ൘শਢѹкˈԆ㻛᧿䘠Ѫ』⭼ᵳ઼ѝഭ Ⲵ'ഭ䱵'ѝ䰤Ӫ⢙ˈ਼ᰦҏᱟᵚᶕਁኅ઼⧠ԓॆ Ⲵ᭩䶙⍮Ӫ⢙DŽԆ൘↔䗷〻ѝᤱѵᆈ൘ˈҏ䴰㾱 аӋᇎ⢙䇱ᦞ˖⧠൘ᡰ䉃Ⲵ㺱цࠟ᭵ት˄㲭❦ᓄ 䈕ᱟ൘Ԇ1916ᒤ৫цਾޤᔪⲴ˅ˈս䛫ҾަԆ ᴤѪᱮⲴᔪㆁѝˈҏ㻛ᇊսᡀањտᆵঊ⢙ 侶DŽ

As a focus point in this stage set of urban renaissance, the ambivalent person of the military gover-QRU DQG WUDQVLHQW HPSHURU <XDQ 6KLNDL LV FXUUHQWO\ being reinvented as a cultural broker. This is happening not only in a 'historical' sense, whereby he is portrayed as an 'inter-national' mediator between the Concession Powers and China, and a national reformer towards future development and modernisa-WLRQ+LVHQGXULQJSUHVHQFHRQVLWHVHHPVWRUHTXLUH VRPH µSK\VLFDO¶ SURRI DV ZHOO WKH VRFDOOHG <XDQ Shikai Residence (most probably built several years *after* his death in 1916) has been staged in the style of a house museum next to other 'prominent' neighbours.

㘼ᖰই〫ˈ2018ᒤᡁԜⲴ➗⡷⑨㿸ԕᰗᰦྕ स઼བྷ࡙ᑍഭӔ⭼༴㓸DŽ↔ൠ⧠൘㻛ѝഭᵪ ޣˈቔަᱟ⑨ъˈ᭩䙐ᡀޘ⨳ѫ仈Ⲵ᮷ॆ䚇ӗ ޜഝˈ྇⭘Ⲵᱟ㖇Ֆ㩘઼㔤ҏ㓣Ⲵ仾ṬDŽ㘼൘ 䐘᮷ॆ亶ฏˈlj䎠ੁޘ⨳Ⲵᐳᯟ๑NJаҖˈሩ ྕसᑍഭ』⭼䘋㹼ҶањᆼᮤⲴᗚ⧟䇪䘠˖Ӿ 1902-1917ᒤ䰤ཀྵ൘ഭ≁═㿶઼ᖃൠᔪ䇮ཡ䍕Ⲵ 䛓⇥䈝✹н䈖ⲴশਢˈࠐࡠⲮᒤਾ䰚⛱ަ䇽ǃ䘁 Ѿ՚䙐Ⲵ䚇ӗDŽ

Further south, the photographic tour in 2018 culminated at the old trans-imperial contact zone between Austria-Hungary and Italy. This spot has been FRPPRGL¿HGWKURXJKUHFHQW&KLQHVHDJHQF\DQGIRU a primarily Chinese tourist industry into a global theme park of cultural heritage stereotypes imported from Florence and Vienna. In a transcultural sense, *Habsburgs going global* has come full circle in the name of the Austro-Hungarian concession: from an ambivalent *history caught between national disinterest and local failure* between 1902 and 1917 to an ambivalent *heritage of close-to-fake* one hundred years later.

Chinese translation by Dr. Channa Li, Institute for the Cultural and Intellectual History of Asia (IKGA), Austrian Academy of Sciences, Viennaѝ᮷㘫䈁ˈ ᵾႥ၌ঊ༛˄ྕൠ࡙ഭᇦ、ᆖ䲒ˈӊ⍢᮷ॆоᙍ ᜣਢ⹄ウᡰˈ 㔤ҏ㓣˅

### **Biographical Information about the Authors**

#### **Michael Falser**

Michael Falser, born in 1973, is a Viennese architectural historian who studied architecture and art history in Vienna and Paris. After completing his PhD in modern architectural history at the TU Berlin, he worked as a historic preservation architect in the USA and then as an assistant professor at ETH Zurich and LMU Munich. In parallel to his work as DSURMHFWPDQDJHULQWKH¿HOGRIJOREDODUWDUFKLWHFtural history and cultural heritage and for his *Habilitation* SURIHVVRULDO TXDOL¿FDWLRQ  DWWKH µ\$VLD and Europe in a Global Context. The Dynamics of Transculturality' Cluster of Excellence at Heidelberg University (2009–2018), he held visiting professorships in Japan, France, Austria and Germany. Since 2020, he is Heisenberg Fellow of the German Research Foundation (DFG) at the Chair of History and Theory of Architecture, Art and Design at the Technical University of Munich. His current research project deals with the global history of German colonial architecture in Africa, Asia and Oceania. In this context, he will curate a catalogue and exhibition project in 2023 at the Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte in Munich focusing on historic print media in relation to German colonial building cultures.

His monographs comprise, amongst others, his German-language PhD thesis, 'Politische Geschichte GHU'HQNPDOSÀHJHLQ'HXWVFKODQG¶>\$3ROLWLFDO+LVtory of Monument Preservation in Germany] (Dresden: Thelem, 2008) and ' Angkor Wat. A Transcultural History of Heritage' (two volumes, Berlin: De-Gruyter, 2020) which was awarded the book prize of ICAS/IIAS (International Convention of Asian Scholars/International Institute of Asian Studies/ Leiden University) in 2021. Together with several edited conference proceedings, book chapters and journal articles about cultural heritage, his most recent multi- authored publication project was the themed volume of the journal *Kunstchronik* (July DERXWWKHµ\*OREDOH5lXPHGHVGHXWVFKHQ.R-ORQLDOLVPXV%HJUL൵H XQG0HWKRGHQ ±&DVH 6WXGLHV ±'LV]LSOLQlUH4XHUYHUELQGXQJHQ¶>\*OREDO6SDFHVRI German Colonialism. Terms and Methods – Case Studies – Interdisciplinary Connections]. The present publication adds another important element to his conceptual approach in the disciplines of Global Architectural History and Cultural Heritage Studies.

#### **Georg Lehner**

Georg Lehner teaches Modern History at the Department of History at the University of Vienna, Austria. After studying history and Chinese studies in Vienna, he completed his PhD thesis on the history of Austr(o-Hungar)ian consular representation in China (1995). His research focuses on the history of Sino-Western relations.

He has published several journal articles on the history of nineteenth-century relations between Austria(-Hungary) and China and on the history of European perceptions of China, with an emphasis on the history of Chinese studies (see his publications in this context, listed in the bibliography of this book). His monographs include his *Habilitation*  thesis: 'Der Druck chinesischer Zeichen. Entwicklungen im 19. Jahrhundert' [Printing Chinese characters in nineteenth-century Europe] (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2004) and 'China in European Encyclopaedias, 1700–1850' (Leiden: Brill, 2011).